Authorship of the Pauline epistles
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul the Apostle.
There is strong consensus in modern New Testament scholarship on a core group of authentic Pauline epistles whose authorship is rarely contested: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Several additional letters bearing Paul's name are disputed among scholars, namely Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus. Scholarly opinion is sharply divided on whether or not Colossians and 2 Thessalonians are genuine letters of Paul. The remaining four contested epistles – Ephesians, as well as the three known as the Pastoral epistles (1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus) – have been labeled pseudepigraphical works by most critical scholars.[1] Some scholars have proposed that Paul may have used an amanuensis, or secretary, in writing the disputed letters,[2] although such a solution would not explain the fact that the disputed letters appear to have been written at least a decade after Paul’s death.
There are two examples of pseudonymous letters written in Paul's name apart from the New Testament epistles, the Epistle to the Laodiceans and 3 Corinthians.
The Epistle to the Hebrews is actually anonymous, but it has been traditionally attributed to Paul.[3] The church father Origen of Alexandria rejected the Pauline authorship of Hebrews, instead asserting that, although the ideas expressed in the letter were genuinely Pauline, the letter itself had actually been written by someone else.[4] Most modern scholars generally agree that Hebrews was not written by the apostle Paul. Various other possible authorships have been suggested.[5]
The name "undisputed" epistles represents the scholarly consensus asserting that Paul authored each letter.
The undisputed letters are:
These seven letters are quoted or mentioned by the earliest of sources, and are included in every ancient canon, including that of Marcion (c. 140).[17] There is no record of scholarly doubt concerning authorship until the 19th century when, around 1840, German scholar Ferdinand Christian Baur accepted only four of the letters bearing Paul's name as genuine, which he called the Hauptebriefe (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Galatians). Hilgenfeld (1875) and H. J. Holtzmann (1885) expanded Baur's four into seven, by adding Philemon, 1 Thessalonians, and Philippians.[18]
Nowadays, few scholars argue against this list of seven epistles, which all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style. They also exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the Mosaic Law, Christ, and faith.
Disputed epistles[edit]
Colossians[edit]
Although Colossians is witnessed by the same historical sources as the undisputed texts, Pauline authorship of Colossians has found some critics. It was originally doubted by F. C. Baur, though others working from his general thesis, such as H. J. Holtzmann, argued that an original brief Pauline text experienced many interpolations by a later editor.[19] The basis for this early objection was that the letter aimed at refuting Gnosticism, a heresy which had not reached its ascendancy until the early 2nd century. This thesis subsequently declined, especially following an analysis of Gnosticism by R. Wilson,[20] in which he contended that the supposed parallels to Gnosticism were unsupported.
Another argument centers on differences in style and vocabulary. W. Bujard attempted to show significant stylistic differences between Colossians and Paul's other works, such as unusual genitive constructions.[21][22] Others have analyzed the style and reached opposite conclusions.[23]
The extensiveness of the theological development in the epistle compared to other epistles has also led to skepticism concerning Pauline authorship. H. Conzelmann made such an argument, pointing to differing theological concepts of "hope".[24] Others accepting this analysis have asserted that the text is merely a late text of Paul, though the thesis has not found wide scholarly concurrence.[25] Many have argued that Colossians has an ecclesiology that is incompatible with the authentic Pauline texts.[26] While Romans and 1 Corinthians, like Colossians, speak of a body of Christ, it is clear that Paul imagines the church as the body of Christ on earth (Rom 7:4, 12:5; 1 Cor 12:27). Conversely, the text of Colossians seems to imagine that Christ is the head of the body, which is the church (Col 1:18). Additionally, detractors of the traditional authorship of Colossians point to the work's "realized eschatology."[27] Whereas Paul, an apocalyptic Jew, anticipated the bodily resurrection of the faithful in the future (Rom 6:4-5), Colossians indicates that believers have already been raised with Christ (2:12; 3:1). Similarly, though Paul envisions Christ's triumph over rulers and authorities as a future event (1 Cor 15:24), Colossians 2:15 acknowledges this as having already occurred.[28] Another intriguing distinction between the Colossian correspondence and the "7 authentic letters" is the lack of a financial request for the poor in Jerusalem.[29] Kiley notes that while every one of Paul's "authentic" letters wish for financial report, Colossians is mysteriously lacking such a request.
The connection between Colossians and Philemon, an undisputed letter, is significant. A certain Archippus is referred to in both Philemon 2 and Colossians 4:17, and the greetings of both letters bear similar names.[30] Additionally, the nearly identical phrases of Philemon 5 and Colossians 1:4 and the presence of Onesimus in both letters stands out. However, the connection between the two epistles can be used by those on both sides of the Pauline vs. deutero-Pauline debate. To those who favor Pauline authorship of Colossians, this is evidence of same authorship; to those who do not, this, combined with the other evidence noted, is indicative of a skillful forger.
Ephesians[edit]
The author of Ephesians claims to be Paul in the opening address, itself identical to those of Second Corinthians and Colossians. There were no doubts in the late-second century church that Paul wrote the epistle: it was quoted authoritatively by church fathers, including Tertullian,[31] Clement of Alexandria,[32] and Irenaeus,[33] among others. Ephesians may be an amended version of the letter to the Laodiceans in the Marcion canon (130)[34] and the Muratorian fragment (before 180).
The authenticity of this letter was first disputed by the Dutch Renaissance scholar Desiderius Erasmus, and in more recent times has drawn detailed criticism.
The letter is made up of 50 sentences, 9 with over 50 words. The closest, Romans, has 3 out of 581 sentences of such length. E. J. Goodspeed,[35] and C. L. Mitton[36] argued the style was unlike Paul's other works. Many words in the letter are not in the "undisputed" epistles. However, still, some scholars do not find the style of Ephesians to be unlike Paul's authentic letters.[37] In antiquity, the Greek Church Fathers, many of whom noticed the divergent Greek style of Hebrews, made no such comments about Ephesians.
In this letter, the word ecclesia is used to refer theologically to the universal church rather than, as Paul typically employs it, to the local churches that he had founded. Also, the eschatological tone is more subdued than in other letters: the expectation of Christ's imminent return is unmentioned, while future generations are (3:21), as is a concern for social order. W. G. Kümmel argued that the theology is later than Paul.[38]
There is a close literary relationship between the Colossians and Ephesians.[39] E. F. Scott argued that Paul used one letter as a model for the other,[40] whereas others have considered Ephesians to be derivative of Colossians, edited and reworked by another.[41] Donald Guthrie summarized the implications of this: "Advocates of non-Pauline authorship find it difficult to conceive that one mind could have produced two works possessing so remarkable a degree of similarity in theme and phraseology and yet differing in so many other respects, whereas advocates of Pauline authorship are equally emphatic that two minds could not have produced two such works with so much subtle interdependence blended with independence."[42]
Paul founded and built up the church in Ephesus; however, this letter does not appear to contain the usual specific greetings, seen in Paul's other letters, addressed to people he remembers. There is some evidence that the Letter to the Ephesians might have been sent to several different churches. Some of the oldest manuscripts of this letter are not addressed to "God's holy people who are at Ephesus," but merely to "God's holy people." Marcion, around 140, quoted from this letter and attributed the quote to Paul's "Letter to the Laodiceans." In the 17th century, James Ussher suggested that this might have been a "circular letter" that Paul sent to several churches, including Ephesus and Laodicea. This would explain why Paul's usual personal greetings are absent: these could not be included in a letter sent to several different churches.
Summary of the reasons for thinking Ephesians is not by Paul:[43]
There are no preserved lists of a Christian New Testament canon from the 1st century and early 2nd century.
The Second Epistle of Peter, a pseudepigrapha written between 60-130 and attributed to Saint Peter refers to the Pauline epistles, but does not specify which ones it is referring to.[74][75]
Pope Clement I (c. 35-99 AD) quotes from 1 Corinthians and alludes to Paul's epistles to the Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, and Philippians, Titus, 1 Timothy, numerous phrases from the Epistle to the Hebrews, and possible material from the Acts of the Apostles.[76]
Ignatius of Antioch (died c. 110 AD) appears to have quoted from Romans, 1 Corinthians, Ephesians, Colossians, and 1 Thessalonians.[77]
Polycarp of Smyrna (69–156 AD) not only quoted from 2 Thessalonians but also the Gospel of Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Gospel of Luke, Acts of the Apostles, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Epistle to the Hebrews, 1 Peter, 1 John, 3 John.[78]
The Epistle of Barnabas, written between 96 and 135, quotes from Galatians.[79]
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215 AD) quotes all the books of the New Testament with the exception of Philemon, James, 2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John.[80]
The earliest extant canon containing Paul's letters is from the 2nd century:
Historical criticism of the authorship of the epistles[edit]
In the nineteenth-century, a group of scholars at the University of Tübingen, led by Ferdinand Christian Baur, engaged in radical bible study, including the claim that only Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Galatians were authored by Paul (i.e. Hauptbriefe).[85] During the same period, another group of Dutch scholars led by Allard Pierson (Dutch Radical School), argued that all Pauline epistles were pseudepigrapha, a view that was also shared by Bruno Bauer,[86] Rudolf Steck and Arthur Drews.[87]
Sources Arguing for the Traditional Authorship of the Deutero-Pauline/Pastoral Letters
Sources Arguing for Pauline Pseudepigraphy in the Pauline Corpus
Sources Undecided on the Matter of Pauline Authorship
The Ethics of Pseudepigraphy in the NT and the Ancient World
Additional Resources