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CT scan

A computed tomography scan (CT scan; formerly called computed axial tomography scan or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique used to obtain detailed internal images of the body.[2] The personnel that perform CT scans are called radiographers or radiology technologists.[3][4]

This article is about X-ray computed tomography as used in medicine. For cross-sectional images used in industry, see Industrial computed tomography. For means of tomography other than X-ray, see Tomography.

CT scan

X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT), computerized axial tomography scan (CAT scan),[1] computer aided tomography, computed tomography scan

CT scanners use a rotating X-ray tube and a row of detectors placed in a gantry to measure X-ray attenuations by different tissues inside the body. The multiple X-ray measurements taken from different angles are then processed on a computer using tomographic reconstruction algorithms to produce tomographic (cross-sectional) images (virtual "slices") of a body. CT scan can be used in patients with metallic implants or pacemakers, for whom magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is contraindicated.


Since its development in the 1970s, CT scanning has proven to be a versatile imaging technique. While CT is most prominently used in medical diagnosis, it can also be used to form images of non-living objects. The 1979 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded jointly to South African-American physicist Allan MacLeod Cormack and British electrical engineer Godfrey Hounsfield "for the development of computer-assisted tomography".[5][6]

(CCTA): the use of CT to assess the coronary arteries of the heart. The subject receives an intravenous injection of radiocontrast, and then the heart is scanned using a high-speed CT scanner, allowing radiologists to assess the extent of occlusion in the coronary arteries, usually to diagnose coronary artery disease.[56][57]

Coronary CT angiography

: also used for the assessment of severity of coronary artery disease. Specifically, it looks for calcium deposits in the coronary arteries that can narrow arteries and increase the risk of a heart attack.[58] A typical coronary CT calcium scan is done without the use of radiocontrast, but it can possibly be done from contrast-enhanced images as well.[59]

Coronary CT calcium scan

Other uses[edit]

Industrial use[edit]

Industrial CT scanning (industrial computed tomography) is a process which utilizes X-ray equipment to produce 3D representations of components both externally and internally. Industrial CT scanning has been utilized in many areas of industry for internal inspection of components. Some of the key uses for CT scanning have been flaw detection, failure analysis, metrology, assembly analysis, image-based finite element methods[74] and reverse engineering applications. CT scanning is also employed in the imaging and conservation of museum artifacts.[75]

Aviation security[edit]

CT scanning has also found an application in transport security (predominantly airport security) where it is currently used in a materials analysis context for explosives detection CTX (explosive-detection device)[76][77][78][79] and is also under consideration for automated baggage/parcel security scanning using computer vision based object recognition algorithms that target the detection of specific threat items based on 3D appearance (e.g. guns, knives, liquid containers).[80][81][82] Its usage in airport security pioneered at Shannon Airport in March 2022 has ended the ban on liquids over 100 ml there, a move that Heathrow Airport plans for a full roll-out on 1 December 2022 and the TSA spent $781.2 million on an order for over 1,000 scanners, ready to go live in the summer.

Geological use[edit]

X-ray CT is used in geological studies to quickly reveal materials inside a drill core.[83] Dense minerals such as pyrite and barite appear brighter and less dense components such as clay appear dull in CT images.[84]

Cultural heritage use[edit]

X-ray CT and micro-CT can also be used for the conservation and preservation of objects of cultural heritage. For many fragile objects, direct research and observation can be damaging and can degrade the object over time. Using CT scans, conservators and researchers are able to determine the material composition of the objects they are exploring, such as the position of ink along the layers of a scroll, without any additional harm. These scans have been optimal for research focused on the workings of the Antikythera mechanism or the text hidden inside the charred outer layers of the En-Gedi Scroll. However, they are not optimal for every object subject to these kinds of research questions, as there are certain artifacts like the Herculaneum papyri in which the material composition has very little variation along the inside of the object. After scanning these objects, computational methods can be employed to examine the insides of these objects, as was the case with the virtual unwrapping of the En-Gedi scroll and the Herculaneum papyri.[85] Micro-CT has also proved useful for analyzing more recent artifacts such as still-sealed historic correspondence that employed the technique of letterlocking (complex folding and cuts) that provided a "tamper-evident locking mechanism".[86][87] Further examples of use cases in archaeology is imaging the contents of sarcophagi or ceramics.[88]


Recently, CWI in Amsterdam has collaborated with Rijksmuseum to investigate art object inside details in the framework called IntACT.[89]

Micro organism research[edit]

Varied types of fungus can degrade wood to different degrees, one Belgium research group has been used X-ray CT 3 dimension with sub-micron resolution unveiled fungi can penetrate micropores of 0.6 μm[90] under certain conditions.

Timber sawmill[edit]

Sawmills use industrial CT scanners to detect round defects, for instance knots, to improve total value of timber productions. Most sawmills are planning to incorporate this robust detection tool to improve productivity in the long run, however initial investment cost is high.


Microtec is one log scanner manufacturer, with headquarters in Italy.

Slices (of varying thickness). Thin slice is generally regarded as planes representing a thickness of less than 3 .[91][92] Thick slice is generally regarded as planes representing a thickness between 3 mm and 5 mm.[92][93]

mm

Projection, including [94] and average intensity projection

maximum intensity projection

(VR)[94]

Volume rendering

Advantages[edit]

CT scanning has several advantages over traditional two-dimensional medical radiography. First, CT eliminates the superimposition of images of structures outside the area of interest.[137] Second, CT scans have greater image resolution, enabling examination of finer details. CT can distinguish between tissues that differ in radiographic density by 1% or less.[138] Third, CT scanning enables multiplanar reformatted imaging: scan data can be visualized in the transverse (or axial), coronal, or sagittal plane, depending on the diagnostic task.[139]


The improved resolution of CT has permitted the development of new investigations. For example, CT angiography avoids the invasive insertion of a catheter. CT scanning can perform a virtual colonoscopy with greater accuracy and less discomfort for the patient than a traditional colonoscopy.[140][141] Virtual colonography is far more accurate than a barium enema for detection of tumors and uses a lower radiation dose.[142]


CT is a moderate-to-high radiation diagnostic technique. The radiation dose for a particular examination depends on multiple factors: volume scanned, patient build, number and type of scan protocol, and desired resolution and image quality.[143] Two helical CT scanning parameters, tube current and pitch, can be adjusted easily and have a profound effect on radiation. CT scanning is more accurate than two-dimensional radiographs in evaluating anterior interbody fusion, although they may still over-read the extent of fusion.[144]

deterministic effects (harmful tissue reactions) due in large part to the killing/malfunction of cells following high doses;

[190]

stochastic effects, i.e., cancer and heritable effects involving either cancer development in exposed individuals owing to mutation of somatic cells or heritable disease in their offspring owing to mutation of reproductive (germ) cells.

[191]

Society and culture[edit]

Campaigns[edit]

In response to increased concern by the public and the ongoing progress of best practices, the Alliance for Radiation Safety in Pediatric Imaging was formed within the Society for Pediatric Radiology. In concert with the American Society of Radiologic Technologists, the American College of Radiology and the American Association of Physicists in Medicine, the Society for Pediatric Radiology developed and launched the Image Gently Campaign which is designed to maintain high-quality imaging studies while using the lowest doses and best radiation safety practices available on pediatric patients.[220] This initiative has been endorsed and applied by a growing list of various professional medical organizations around the world and has received support and assistance from companies that manufacture equipment used in Radiology.


Following upon the success of the Image Gently campaign, the American College of Radiology, the Radiological Society of North America, the American Association of Physicists in Medicine and the American Society of Radiologic Technologists have launched a similar campaign to address this issue in the adult population called Image Wisely.[221]


The World Health Organization and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) of the United Nations have also been working in this area and have ongoing projects designed to broaden best practices and lower patient radiation dose.[222][223]

Major manufacturers of CT scanning devices and equipment are:[228]

Research[edit]

Photon-counting computed tomography is a CT technique currently under development. Typical CT scanners use energy integrating detectors; photons are measured as a voltage on a capacitor which is proportional to the X-rays detected. However, this technique is susceptible to noise and other factors which can affect the linearity of the voltage to X-ray intensity relationship.[229] Photon counting detectors (PCDs) are still affected by noise but it does not change the measured counts of photons. PCDs have several potential advantages, including improving signal (and contrast) to noise ratios, reducing doses, improving spatial resolution, and through use of several energies, distinguishing multiple contrast agents.[230][231] PCDs have only recently become feasible in CT scanners due to improvements in detector technologies that can cope with the volume and rate of data required. As of February 2016, photon counting CT is in use at three sites.[232] Some early research has found the dose reduction potential of photon counting CT for breast imaging to be very promising.[233] In view of recent findings of high cumulative doses to patients from recurrent CT scans, there has been a push for scanning technologies and techniques that reduce ionising radiation doses to patients to sub-milliSievert (sub-mSv in the literature) levels during the CT scan process, a goal that has been lingering.[234][155][156][157]

Development of CT imaging

—PPT by David Platten

CT Artefacts

Filler A (2009-06-30). . Nature Precedings: 1. doi:10.1038/npre.2009.3267.4. ISSN 1756-0357.

"The History, Development and Impact of Computed Imaging in Neurological Diagnosis and Neurosurgery: CT, MRI, and DTI"

Boone JM, McCollough CH (2021). . Physics Today. 74 (9): 34–40. Bibcode:2021PhT....74i..34B. doi:10.1063/PT.3.4834. ISSN 0031-9228. S2CID 239718717.

"Computed tomography turns 50"