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Censorship

Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient".[2][3][4] Censorship can be conducted by governments,[5] private institutions,[6] and other controlling bodies.

Governments[5] and private organizations may engage in censorship. Other groups or institutions may propose and petition for censorship.[6] When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, it is referred to as self-censorship. General censorship occurs in a variety of different media, including speech, books, music, films, and other arts, the press, radio, television, and the Internet for a variety of claimed reasons including national security, to control obscenity, pornography, and hate speech, to protect children or other vulnerable groups, to promote or restrict political or religious views, and to prevent slander and libel. Specific rules and regulations regarding censorship vary between legal jurisdictions and/or private organizations.

Moral censorship is the removal of materials that are or otherwise considered morally questionable. Pornography, for example, is often censored under this rationale, especially child pornography, which is illegal and censored in most jurisdictions in the world.[17][18]

obscene

is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage.

Military censorship

occurs when governments hold back information from their citizens. This is often done to exert control over the populace and prevent free expression that might foment rebellion.

Political censorship

is the means by which any material considered objectionable by a certain religion is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less prevalent ones. Alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their religion.

Religious censorship

is the process by which editors in corporate media outlets intervene to disrupt the publishing of information that portrays their business or business partners in a negative light,[19][20] or intervene to prevent alternate offers from reaching public exposure.[21]

Corporate censorship

Censorship has been criticized throughout history for being unfair and hindering progress. In a 1997 essay on Internet censorship, social commentator Michael Landier explains that censorship is counterproductive as it prevents the censored topic from being discussed. Landier expands his argument by claiming that those who impose censorship must consider what they censor to be true, as individuals believing themselves to be correct would welcome the opportunity to disprove those with opposing views.[15]


Censorship is often used to impose moral values on society, as in the censorship of material considered obscene. English novelist E. M. Forster was a staunch opponent of censoring material on the grounds that it was obscene or immoral, raising the issue of moral subjectivity and the constant changing of moral values. When the 1928 novel Lady Chatterley's Lover was put on trial in 1960, Forster wrote:[16]


Proponents have sought to justify it using different rationales for various types of information censored:

A 1993 magazine article quotes computer scientist John Gillmore, one of the founders of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, as saying "The Net interprets censorship as damage and routes around it."[65]

Time

In November 2007, "Father of the Internet" stated that he sees government control of the Internet failing because the Web is almost entirely privately owned.[66]

Vint Cerf

A report of research conducted in 2007 and published in 2009 by the Beckman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University stated that: "We are confident that the [censorship circumvention] tool developers will for the most part keep ahead of the governments' blocking efforts", but also that "...we believe that less than two percent of all filtered Internet users use circumvention tools".

[67]

In contrast, a 2011 report by researchers at the published by UNESCO concludes "... the control of information on the Internet and Web is certainly feasible, and technological advances do not therefore guarantee greater freedom of speech."[59]

Oxford Internet Institute

 – Basic form of censorship

Censor bars

 – Type of censorship of speech

Collateral censorship

 – Administrative or political action to deny access to a platform to express opinions

Deplatforming

 – Laws on mass media

Media regulation

also known as Hays Code – U.S. film studio self-censorship rules (1930–1967)

Motion Picture Production Code

 – 1949 novel by George Orwell

Nineteen Eighty-Four

 – Societal or cultural prohibition

Taboo

 – Increased awareness of information caused by efforts to suppress it

Streisand effect

Crampton, R.J. (1997), Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century and After, Routledge,  978-0415164221

ISBN

Major, Patrick; Mitter, Rana (2004), "East is East and West is West?", in Major, Patrick (ed.), Across the Blocs: Exploring Comparative Cold War Cultural and Social History, Taylor & Francis, Inc.,  978-0714684642

ISBN

Abbott, Randy. "." Project for degree of Education Specialist, University of South Florida, December 1987.

A Critical Analysis of the Library-Related Literature Concerning Censorship in Public Libraries and Public School Libraries in the United States During the 1980s

Biltereyst, Daniel, ed. . Palgrave/Macmillan, 2013.* Birmingham, Kevin, The Most Dangerous Book: The Battle for James Joyce's Ulysses, London (Head of Zeus Ltd), 2014, ISBN 978-1594203367

Silencing Cinema

Burress, Lee. . Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989.

Battle of the Books

"Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative"(1997).

Butler, Judith

Censors at Work: How States Shaped Literature. New York: W. W. Norton. 2014. ISBN 978-0393242294.

Darnton, Robert

Demm, Eberhard. Censorship and Propaganda in World War I: A Comprehensive History (Bloomsbury Academic, 2019)

online review

edited by Lawrence D. Kritzman. Philosophy, Culture: Interviews and Other Writings 1977–1984 (New York/London: 1988, Routledge, ISBN 0415900824) (The text Sexual Morality and the Law is Chapter 16 of the book).

Foucault, Michel

Gilbert, Nora. . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013.

Better Left Unsaid: Victorian Novels, Hays Code Films, and the Benefits of Censorship

Hoffman, Frank. . Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989.

Intellectual Freedom and Censorship

Mathiesen, Kay Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics, Kenneth E. Himma, Herman T. Tavani, eds., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2008

Censorship and Access to Information

National Coalition against Censorship (NCAC). "Books on Trial: A Survey of Recent Cases." January 1985.

Parker, Alison M. (1997). , University of Illinois Press.

Purifying America: Women, Cultural Reform, and Pro-Censorship Activism, 1873–1933

Ringmar, Erik (London: Anthem Press, 2007)

A Blogger's Manifesto: Free Speech and Censorship in the Age of the Internet

Terry, John David II. "Censorship: Post Pico." In School Law Update, 1986, edited by Thomas N. Jones and Darel P. Semler.

Sandefur, Timothy (2008). . In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-1412965804.

"Censorship"

Silber, Radomír. Partisan Media and Modern Censorship: Media Influence On Czech Political Partisanship and the Media's Creation of Limits to Public Opposition and Control of Exercising Power in the Czech Republic in the 1990s. First edition. Brno: Tribun EU, 2017. 86 stran. Librix.eu.  978-8026311744.

ISBN

Silber, Radomír. (2018) On Modern Censorship in Public Service Broadcasting. Cultural and Religious Studies, Volume 3, 2018,  2328-2177.

ISSN

Wittern-Keller, Laura. . University Press of Kentucky 2008

Freedom of the Screen: Legal Challenges to State Film Censorship, 1915–1981