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Cosmic ray spallation

Cosmic ray spallation, also known as the x-process, is a set of naturally occurring nuclear reactions causing nucleosynthesis; it refers to the formation of chemical elements from the impact of cosmic rays on an object. Cosmic rays are highly energetic charged particles from beyond Earth, ranging from protons, alpha particles, and nuclei of many heavier elements. About 1% of cosmic rays also consist of free electrons.

Cosmic rays cause spallation when a ray particle (e.g. a proton) impacts with matter, including other cosmic rays. The result of the collision is the expulsion of particles (protons, neutrons, and alpha particles) from the object hit. This process goes on not only in deep space, but in Earth's upper atmosphere and crustal surface (typically the upper ten meters) due to the ongoing impact of cosmic rays.

; Earnshaw, A. (1998). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-3365-9.

Greenwood, N. N.

Meneguzzi, M.; Audouze, J.; Reeves, H. (1971). "The production of the elements Li, Be, B by galactic cosmic rays in space and its relation with stellar observations". . 15: 337. Bibcode:1971A&A....15..337M.

Astronomy and Astrophysics

California Institute of Technology: The Cosmic Ray Isotope Spectrometer (CRIS)

Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds: Is the cosmic-ray residence time E^-0.6 (spallation) or E^-(1/3) (anisotropy, turbulence)?

Ultra Heavy Cosmic Ray Propagation Using New Spallation Cross-Section Expressions

Evidence for cosmic ray spallation production of helium and neon found in volcanoes