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Forensic science

Forensic science, also known as criminalistics,[1] is the application of science principles and methods to support legal decision-making in matters of criminal and civil law.

"Forensics" redirects here. For the fields of speech and debate, see Public speaking and Debate.

During criminal investigation in particular, it is governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal procedure. It is a broad field utilizing numerous practices such as the analysis of DNA, fingerprints, bloodstain patterns, firearms, ballistics, toxicology, and fire debris analysis.


Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze evidence during the course of an investigation. While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to collect the evidence themselves, others occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis on objects brought to them by other individuals.[2] Others are involved in analysis of financial, banking, or other numerical data for use in financial crime investigation, and can be employed as consultants from private firms, academia, or as government employees.[3]


In addition to their laboratory role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases.[4]

Etymology[edit]

The term forensic stems from the Latin word, forēnsis (3rd declension, adjective), meaning "of a forum, place of assembly".[5] The history of the term originates in Roman times, when a criminal charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story. The case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two modern usages of the word forensic—as a form of legal evidence; and as a category of public presentation.[6]


In modern use, the term forensics is often used in place of "forensic science."


The word "science", is derived from the Latin word for 'knowledge' and is today closely tied to the scientific method, a systematic way of acquiring knowledge. Taken together, forensic science means the use of scientific methods and processes for crime solving.

concerns the art authentication cases to help research the work's authenticity. Art authentication methods are used to detect and identify forgery, faking and copying of art works, e.g. paintings.

Art forensics

is the scientific examination of blood spatter patterns found at a crime scene to reconstruct the events of the crime.

Bloodstain pattern analysis

is the application of visual comparison techniques to verify similarity of physical evidence. This includes fingerprint analysis, toolmark analysis, and ballistic analysis.

Comparative forensics

concerns the development of algorithms and software to assist forensic examination.

Computational forensics

is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating to examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tire tracks), controlled substances, ballistics, firearm and toolmark examination, and other evidence in criminal investigations. In typical circumstances, evidence is processed in a crime lab.

Criminalistics

is the application of proven scientific methods and techniques in order to recover data from electronic / digital media. Digital Forensic specialists work in the field as well as in the lab.

Digital forensics

is used as a means of forensic identification intended as an identification tool similar to fingerprinting. An earprint is a two-dimensional reproduction of the parts of the outer ear that have touched a specific surface (most commonly the helix, antihelix, tragus and antitragus).

Ear print analysis

is the use of statistics to determine if election results are normal or abnormal. It is also used to look into and detect the cases concerning gerrymandering.

Election forensics

is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence, financial statement namely: Balance sheet, Income statement, Cash flow statement.

Forensic accounting

is the study and interpretation of aerial photographic evidence.

Forensic aerial photography

is the application of physical anthropology in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains.

Forensic anthropology

is the application of a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.

Forensic archaeology

uses methods from astronomy to determine past celestial constellations for forensic purposes.

Forensic astronomy

is the study of plant life in order to gain information regarding possible crimes.

Forensic botany

is the study of detection and identification of illicit drugs, accelerants used in arson cases, explosive and gunshot residue.

Forensic chemistry

is the study of fingerprints.

Forensic dactyloscopy

Forensic document examination or answers questions about a disputed document using a variety of scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve a comparison of the questioned document, or components of the document, with a set of known standards. The most common type of examination involves handwriting, whereby the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship.

questioned document examination

takes advantage of the uniqueness of an individual's DNA to answer forensic questions such as paternity/maternity testing and placing a suspect at a crime scene, e.g. in a rape investigation.

Forensic DNA analysis

is the scientific examination and analysis of structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage.

Forensic engineering

deals with the examination of insects in, on and around human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death. It is also possible to determine if the body was moved after death using entomology.

Forensic entomology

deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals and petroleum.

Forensic geology

Forensic geomorphology is the study of the ground surface to look for potential location(s) of buried object(s).

[82]

is the application of geophysical techniques such as radar for detecting objects hidden underground[83] or underwater.[84]

Forensic geophysics

process starts with the collection of data and ends with the integration of results within into the analysis of crimes under investigation.[85]

Forensic intelligence

are conducted using the science of professionally using expertise to conduct a variety of investigative interviews with victims, witnesses, suspects or other sources to determine the facts regarding suspicions, allegations or specific incidents in either public or private sector settings.

Forensic interviews

is the application of histological techniques and examination to forensic pathology practice.

Forensic histopathology

is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or around fresh-water sources. Examination of biological organisms, in particular diatoms, can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.

Forensic limnology

deals with issues in the legal system that requires linguistic expertise.

Forensic linguistics

is a site-specific analysis of past weather conditions for a point of loss.

Forensic meteorology

[86][87] is the application of metrology to assess the reliability of scientific evidence obtained through measurements

Forensic metrology

is the study of the necrobiome.

Forensic microbiology

is the application of Nursing sciences to abusive crimes, like child abuse, or sexual abuse. Categorization of wounds and traumas, collection of bodily fluids and emotional support are some of the duties of forensic nurses.

Forensic nursing

is the study of the uniqueness of dentition, better known as the study of teeth.

Forensic odontology

is the study of glasses and other eyewear relating to crime scenes and criminal investigations.

Forensic optometry

is a field in which the principles of medicine and pathology are applied to determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal inquiry.

Forensic pathology

is an application of the study of feet footprint or footwear and their traces to analyze scene of crime and to establish personal identity in forensic examinations.

Forensic podiatry

is a specialized branch of psychiatry as applied to and based on scientific criminology.

Forensic psychiatry

is the study of the mind of an individual, using forensic methods. Usually it determines the circumstances behind a criminal's behavior.

Forensic psychology

is the study of techniques to distinguish the seismic signals generated by underground nuclear explosions from those generated by earthquakes.

Forensic seismology

is the study of the body fluids.[88]

Forensic serology

is the specialist study of social work theories and their applications to a clinical, criminal justice or psychiatric setting. Practitioners of forensic social work connected with the criminal justice system are often termed Social Supervisors, whilst the remaining use the interchangeable titles forensic social worker, approved mental health professional or forensic practitioner and they conduct specialist assessments of risk, care planning and act as an officer of the court.

Forensic social work

is the study of the effect of drugs and poisons on/in the human body.

Forensic toxicology

is the scientific examination, comparison and evaluation of video in legal matters.

Forensic video analysis

is the scientific examination and evaluation of evidence found in mobile phones, e.g. Call History and Deleted SMS, and includes SIM Card Forensics.

Mobile device forensics

analysis is the analysis and comparison of trace evidence including glass, paint, fibres and hair (e.g., using micro-spectrophotometry).

Trace evidence

applies a range of scientific disciplines to legal cases involving non-human biological evidence, to solve crimes such as poaching, animal abuse, and trade in endangered species.

Wildlife forensic science

was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. The theory was that each batch of ammunition possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to a particular batch or even a specific box. Internal studies and an outside study by the National Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable due to improper interpretation, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005.[90]

Comparative bullet-lead analysis

has come under fire: in at least three cases bite-mark evidence has been used to convict people of murder who were later freed by DNA evidence.[91] A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology found a 63 percent rate of false identifications and is commonly referenced within online news stories and conspiracy websites.[92][93] The study was based on an informal workshop during an ABFO meeting, which many members did not consider a valid scientific setting.[94] The theory is that each person has a unique and distinctive set of teeth, which leave a pattern after biting someone. They analyze the dental characteristics such as size, shape, and arch form. [95]

Forensic dentistry

In 2009, scientists were able to show that it is possible to fabricate DNA evidence, thus "undermining the credibility of what has been considered the gold standard of proof in criminal cases".

[96]

Police Access to Genetic Genealogy Databases: There are privacy concerns with the police being able to access personal genetic data that is on genealogy services. Individuals can become criminal informants to their own families or to themselves simply by participating in genetic genealogy databases. The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is a database that the FBI uses to hold genetic profiles of all known felons, misdemeanants, and arrestees.[97] Some people argue that individuals who are using genealogy databases should have an expectation of privacy in their data that is or may be violated by genetic searches by law enforcement.[97] These different services have warning signs about potential third parties using their information, but most individuals do not read the agreement thoroughly. According to a study by Christi Guerrini, Jill Robinson, Devan Petersen, and Amy McGuire, they found that the majority of the people who took the survey support police searches of genetic websites that identify genetic relatives.[97] People who responded to the survey are more supportive of police activities using genetic genealogy when it is for the purpose of identifying offenders of violent crimes, suspects of crimes against children or missing people. The data from the surveys that were given show that individuals are not concerned about police searches using personal genetic data if it is justified. It was found in this study that offenders are disproportionally low-income and black and the average person of genetic testing is wealthy and white. The results from the study had different results.[97] In 2016, there was a survey called the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) that was provided by the US Bureau of Justice Statistics. In that survey, it was found that 1.3% of people aged 12 or older were victims of violent crimes, and 8.85 of households were victims of property crimes.[97] There were some issues with this survey though. The NCVS produces only the annual estimates of victimization. The survey that Christi Guerrini, Jill Robinson, Devan Petersen, and Amy McGuire produced asked the participants about the incidents of victimization over one's lifetime.[97] Their survey also did not restrict other family members to one household.[97] Around 25% of people who responded to the survey said that they have had family members that have been employed by law enforcement which includes security guards and bailiffs.[97] Throughout these surveys, it has been found that there is public support for law enforcement to access genetic genealogy databases.

[97]

Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, have turned out later to have much less scientific merit or none.[89] Some such techniques include:

Litigation science[edit]

"Litigation science" describes analysis or data developed or produced expressly for use in a trial versus those produced in the course of independent research. This distinction was made by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals when evaluating the admissibility of experts.[98]


This uses demonstrative evidence, which is evidence created in preparation of trial by attorneys or paralegals.

Demographics[edit]

In the United States there are over 17,200 forensic science technicians as of 2019.[99]

Media impact[edit]

Real-life crime scene investigators and forensic scientists warn that popular television shows do not give a realistic picture of the work, often wildly distorting its nature, and exaggerating the ease, speed, effectiveness, drama, glamour, influence and comfort level of their jobs—which they describe as far more mundane, tedious and boring.[100][101]


Some claim these modern TV shows have changed individuals' expectations of forensic science, sometimes unrealistically—an influence termed the "CSI effect".[102][103]


Further, research has suggested that public misperceptions about criminal forensics can create, in the mind of a juror, unrealistic expectations of forensic evidence—which they expect to see before convicting—implicitly biasing the juror towards the defendant. Citing the "CSI effect," at least one researcher has suggested screening jurors for their level of influence from such TV programs.[103]

Controversies[edit]

Questions about certain areas of forensic science, such as fingerprint evidence and the assumptions behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some publications[104][105] including the New York Post.[106] The article stated that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone's fingerprint is unique."[106] The article also stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned—and with it may come a radical change in how forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors."[106] Law professor Jessica Gabel said on NOVA that forensic science "lacks the rigors, the standards, the quality controls and procedures that we find, usually, in science".[107]


The National Institute of Standards and Technology has reviewed the scientific foundations of bite-mark analysis used in forensic science. Bite mark analysis is a forensic science technique that analyzes the marks on the victim's skin compared to the suspects teeth. [108] NIST reviewed the findings of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2009 study. The National Academics of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine conducted research to address the issues of reliability, accuracy, and reliability of bitemark analysis, where they concluded that there is a lack of sufficient scientific foundation to support the data.[109] Yet the technique is still legal to use in court as evidence. NIST funded a 2019 meeting that consisted of dentists, lawyers, researchers and others to address the gaps in this field. [110]


In the US, on 25 June 2009, the Supreme Court issued a 5-to-4 decision in Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts stating that crime laboratory reports may not be used against criminal defendants at trial unless the analysts responsible for creating them give testimony and subject themselves to cross-examination.[111] The Supreme Court cited the National Academies of Sciences report Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States[112] in their decision. Writing for the majority, Justice Antonin Scalia referred to the National Research Council report in his assertion that "Forensic evidence is not uniquely immune from the risk of manipulation."


In the US, another area of forensic science that has come under question in recent years is the lack of laws requiring the accreditation of forensic labs. Some states require accreditation, but some states do not. Because of this,[113][114] many labs have been caught performing very poor work resulting in false convictions or acquittals. For example, it was discovered after an audit of the Houston Police Department in 2002 that the lab had fabricated evidence which led George Rodriguez being convicted of raping a fourteen-year-old girl.[115] The former director of the lab, when asked, said that the total number of cases that could have been contaminated by improper work could be in the range of 5,000 to 10,000.[115]


The Innocence Project[116] database of DNA exonerations shows that many wrongful convictions contained forensic science errors. According to the Innocence project and the US Department of Justice, forensic science has contributed to about 39 percent to 46 percent of wrongful convictions. [117] As indicated by the National Academy of Sciences report Strengthening Forensic Sciences in the United States,[112] part of the problem is that many traditional forensic sciences have never been empirically validated; and part of the problem is that all examiners are subject to forensic confirmation biases and should be shielded from contextual information not relevant to the judgment they make.


Many studies have discovered a difference in rape-related injuries reporting based on race, with white victims reporting a higher frequency of injuries than black victims.[118] However, since current forensic examination techniques may not be sensitive to all injuries across a range of skin colors, more research needs to be conducted to understand if this trend is due to skin confounding healthcare providers when examining injuries or if darker skin extends a protective element.[118] In clinical practice, for patients with darker skin, one study recommends that attention must be paid to the thighs, labia majora, posterior fourchette and fossa navicularis, so that no rape-related injuries are missed upon close examination.[118]

Forensic science and humanitarian work[edit]

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) uses forensic science for humanitarian purposes to clarify the fate of missing persons after armed conflict, disasters or migration,[119] and is one of the services related to Restoring Family Links and Missing Persons. Knowing what has happened to a missing relative can often make it easier to proceed with the grieving process and move on with life for families of missing persons.


Forensic science is used by various other organizations to clarify the fate and whereabouts of persons who have gone missing. Examples include the NGO Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, working to clarify the fate of people who disappeared during the period of the 1976–1983 military dictatorship. The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) used forensic science to find missing persons,[120] for example after the conflicts in the Balkans.[121]


Recognising the role of forensic science for humanitarian purposes, as well as the importance of forensic investigations in fulfilling the state's responsibilities to investigate human rights violations, a group of experts in the late-1980s devised a UN Manual on the Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, which became known as the Minnesota Protocol. This document was revised and re-published by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in 2016.[122]

 – International non-profit organization

Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners

Canadian Identification Society

 – Branch of digital forensic science

Computer forensics

 – study of crime in order to find ways to prevent it

Crime science

 – Academic study of the protocols of documents (forensic paleography)

Diplomatics

 – Overview article

Epigenetics in forensic science

 – Specialized packaging for physical evidence

Evidence packaging

 – Forensic application of the study of biology

Forensic biology

Forensic economics

 – Legal identification of specific objects and materials

Forensic identification

 – branch of forensic engineering

Forensic materials engineering

 – Art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene

Forensic photography

 – Study of failure in polymeric products

Forensic polymer engineering

 – Study of trace evidence in criminal investigations

Forensic profiling

 – Mark left on a surface by a worn glove

Glove prints

History of forensic photography

International Association for Identification

Marine forensics

 – Overview of and topical guide to forensic science

Outline of forensic science

 – Process of construction and application of user profiles generated by computerized data analysis

Profiling (information science)

 – Practice of identifying an illness after the death of the patient

Retrospective diagnosis

(RSID)

Rapid Stain Identification Series

 – Officer who gathers forensic evidence for the British police

Scenes of crime officer

 – Mark left by any solid which moves against another

Skid mark

University of Florida forensic science distance education program

at Curlie

Forensic Science

Forensic educational resources

(1 March 2022). "Skeptoid #821: Forensic (Pseudo) Science". Skeptoid. Retrieved 15 May 2022.

Dunning, Brian