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Higher education in India

India has a publicly funded higher education system that is the third largest in the world.[1] The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission, which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the center and the state.[2] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 15 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission (UGC).[3] Apart from these institutions, there are several parallel, state, and nationally accredited bodies that provide professional and vocational educational programs like the National Skill Development Corporation, Gramin Skill Development Mission, the Himayat, Kerala Academy for Skills Excellence, the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, etc.

As of 2020, India has over 1000 universities, with a break up of 54 central universities, 416 state universities, 125 deemed universities, 361 state private universities and 159 Institutes of National Importance which include AIIMS, IIMs, IIITs, IISERs, IITs and NITs among others.[4][2][5][6][7][8][9] Other institutions include 52,627 colleges as government degree colleges, private colleges, standalone institutes and post-graduate research institutions, functioning under these universities as reported by the MHRD in 2020.[10] Distance learning and open education are also features of the Indian higher education system and are overseen by the Distance Education Council.[11] Colleges may be Autonomous, i.e. empowered to examine their own degrees, up to PhD level in some cases, or non-autonomous, in which case their examinations are under the supervision of the university to which they are affiliated; in either case, however, degrees are awarded in the name of the university rather than the college. Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) is the oldest distance education university in the country, transitioning from correspondence to online delivery of education, and has the largest number of student enrollments.[12]


India is one of the countries that have historical evidence of systemic education dating back centuries in the world, though it has suffered destruction, manipulation, and reconstruction multiple times under the attack of foreign powers, power-hungry regimes, and colonization. Despite the aftereffects of it, it is one of the agile systems that has shown capability of continuously innovating through nation-building and transformative programs like National Education Policy 2020 due to the self-expanding values and socio-cultural flexibility.

History[edit]

India is believed to have had a system of higher education as early as 1000 B.C.[13] Unlike present day universities, these ancient learning centers were primarily concerned with dispersing Vedic education.[14] The modern Indian education system finds its roots in colonial legacy.[15] British colonists used the university system as a tool of cultural colonization.[13] Colonial efforts in higher education were carried out initially through the East India Company, followed by the British parliament and later under direct British rule.[14] The first institution of higher learning set up by the British East India Company was the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781. This was followed by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784, Benaras Sanskrit College in 1791 and Fort William College in 1800.[15][14] With the Charter Act of 1813, the British Parliament officially declared Indian education as one of the duties of the state.[15] The same act also removed restrictions on missionary work in British India, thus leading to the establishment of the evangelist Serampore College in 1818.[14] Thomas Babbington Macaulay's famously controversial Minute on Education (1835) reflected the growing support of a Western approach to knowledge over an Oriental one.[14] Soon after, in 1857, the first three official universities were started in Bombay (Mumbai), Calcutta (Kolkata) and Madras (Chennai). Followed by the University of Punjab in 1882 and the University of Allahabad in 1887. These universities were modeled after the University of London and focused on English and the humanities[16]


The British control of the Indian education system continued until the Government of India Act 1935 that transferred more power to provincial politicians and began the "Indianisation" of education. This period witnessed a rise in the importance of physical and vocational education as well as the introduction of basic education schemes.[15] When India gained independence in 1947, the nation had a total of 241,369 students registered across 20 universities and 496 colleges. In 1948, the Indian Government established the University Education Commission to oversee the growth and improvement of higher education.[16] In the 1960s and 1970s, the government increased its efforts to support higher education by not only setting up state-funded universities and colleges, but also providing financial assistance to private institutions, resulting in the creation of private aided/ grant-in-aid institutions.[17]


Despite the departure of the British, Indian higher education continued to give importance to the languages and humanities until the 1980s. Institutes of professional education like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani (BITS), Regional Engineering Colleges (REC) and Indian Institutes of Management (IIM) were some of the more prominent exceptions to this trend. These institutions drew inspiration from reputed universities in the United States and also received foreign funding. However, the education system remained using colonial English instead of plain English as many ESL countries do under the view that sophistication of language used in education signifies quality of education instead of the quality of structured knowledge that is transferred.[18] Post 1980s, the changing demands of the global economy, lack of foreign investment and political volatility, decreasing value of currency, and an increased strain on government governance capacity, slowed the growth of state-funded higher educational institutions. This led to an increased role of the private sector in the education system.[17]

A certificate after completing 1 year of study (vocational)

A diploma after completing 2 years of study (vocational)

A Bachelor's degree after completion of a 3-year program (preferred bachelor's degree)

A 4-year multidisciplinary bachelor's degree (professional bachelor's degree)

Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan - A total of 316 state public universities and 13,024 colleges will be covered under the Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan, a plan to manage funding for higher education. This is a scheme to develop state university by central govt funding (60% for general category states, 90% for special category states, 100% for union territories).

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Scheme of Integrating Persons With Disabilities In The Mainstream Of Technical And Vocational Education - Caters to around 50 polytechnics in the country and provides them with grants-in-aid aimed at facilitating greater integration of disabled individuals into higher education.

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Scheme of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya National Mission on Teachers and Teaching (PMMMNMTT) - The purpose of this scheme is to raise the quantity and quality of teaching staff across schools and colleges. It also aims to create better institutional frameworks in order to cultivate change in the positive direction.

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The institutional framework of higher education in India consists of Universities and Colleges.[45] As reported in 2015, India has 760 universities and 38,498 colleges.[46] There are three types of universities: Conventional Universities, Deemed Universities and Institutions of National Importance.[47] While Conventional Universities are established through Act of Parliament or State Legislatures, Deemed Universities award degrees through the notification of the central government.[48] Institutes of National Importance are those that have been awarded the status by Parliament.[49]


The education system of India falls broadly under the Ministry of Human Resource Development(MHRD). Amongst the branches of the MHRD, the Department of Higher Education is responsible for overseeing the growth of the higher education sector. The department aims to improve quality of and access to higher education for all sections of the population.[50] One of the key objectives of the department is to increase the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in higher education to 30% by 2020. Some of the other objectives of the department include: expansion of institutional base, greater inclusion of minorities, removal of regional disparities, infrastructural improvement and increased global participation.[50]


Current government initiatives include:

Financing – The inability of the state to fund the expanding higher education system has resulted in the rapid growth of private higher education. In addition, diminished governmental financial support adversely affects small and rural educational institutions.[15] A growing number of public institutions are forced to resort to self-financing courses and high tuition costs.[70] The private sector's primary modes of financing include donations, capitation fees and exorbitant fee rates. This in turn limits general accessibility to higher education, by catering to only an elite few.[15]

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Enrolment – As of 2019–20, Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education is 27.3 for 18 – 23 year old age group. On the whole, India has an enrolment rate of 9% which is similar to that of other lower middle income countries. The population that is enrolled in higher education consists largely of urban metropolitan dwellers. Rural enrolment in higher education is very low.[70] Moreover, a majority of the recorded enrolment is at the undergraduate level.[71] Over the last 4 years, Indian higher education has maintained a steady female enrolment rate of around 45%.[73] Although the gender gap in enrolment has decreased significantly post-independence, there still exists a disparity amongst different departments. Technology, medicine and commerce are some of the areas of study that are heavily male-dominated while humanities departments show the opposite trend.[74]

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Accreditation - Driven by market opportunities and entrepreneurial zeal, many institutions are taking advantage of the lax regulatory environment to offer 'degrees' not approved by Indian authorities, and many institutions are functioning as pseudo non-profit organisations, developing sophisticated financial methods to siphon off the 'profits'.[76] Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying to extirpate private universities that run courses with no affiliation or recognition. Students from rural and semi-urban background often fall prey to these institutes and colleges.[77]

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Quality - The quality of programs structure-wise and quality-wise are substandard and lack objectives that can meet the basic industrial requirement of "skilled-professionals." However, the assessment methods employed are taxing and the pacing of the courses (quantity over quality approach) are made forcefully quick under the assumption that these are the essential indicators of 'show' quality (appearance quality). These unscientific strategies and promotion of survival mentality instead of growth mentality leads to unsuccessful learning among students. Streamlining of bachelor's program was brought in the Indian system by following other countries by educators who proved they could give the same quality that a four-year degree could provide with a three-year degree. However, the vision of these resolute educators are lost in time, and sub-standardization and political objectives took over the program structure. For example, when a 21st-century three year Indian bachelor's program is compared with a four-year International bachelor's programs it would be in quality only worth of a two-year college program because usually the first year of these programs are heavily focused on general and arts subjects. When core courses of these programs that cover the same topic are compared, Indian courses lack both leading building blocks of learning content, and the depth and fluidity of international courses. A minimum of 65 - 70 percent mastery threshold that internationally is considered as basic readiness for advancing from foundational to advanced courses is not required in Indian programs. Lack of quality in education resulting from these drawbacks lead students gaining substandard and unclear knowledge which in-turn leads to mass unemployment rates among educated youths of India, and it's primarily due to this learned incompetency or incapacity. As part of the ongoing reformation of the National Education Policy (NEP), the Indian government plans to shift academic curriculums from the perspective of academicians to that of professors with practical industry experience. Additionally, there are plans to introduce four-year degree programs instead of restructuring the existing three-year degrees with the aims to ensure competence and quality while offering students a wider range of options. Furthermore, there are plans to establish accelerated two-year bachelor's degree programs that meet international standards to address the increasing demand for skilled professionals in specific sectors, and providing curriculum licensing agreements to industry giants, allowing them to hire workers at a young age and provide them with on-the-job education to obtain a respective University education.[79][80][81] Bringing four-year degree programs is seen with doubt by the media during a time and period when nations with four-year degree programs are lamenting the sustainability of prolonged educational pathways. Experts opine that in an age marked by the widespread availability of information and the rise of modern technologies, traditional educational structures fails to meet the dynamic demands of the labor market.[82][83]

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Politics - Higher education is a high stakes issue in India. It is subject to heavy government involvement. Despite the system's lack of state funding, 15.5% of government expenditure goes toward higher education. Also, many prominent political figures either own or sit on the managerial board of the Universities.[85] This leads to the exertion of intense political pressures on the administration of these institutions.[84] Caste based reservations make Indian higher education an even more contested topic. While some make the case that caste-based quotas are necessary to tackle prevailing socio-economic disparities,[86] others see it as exclusionary to upper-caste individuals.[87] The NEP reformation further helps to increase these problems where educators will hold a power to act based on caste and religion based politics in determining who will go further in studies and who should not. This effectively reduces the race for quality education at quality institutions in favor of majority power holders. As a result of biased inclusionism that does not fit for needs of the society as whole and the historic exclusionism of minorities, student activisms are rampant, apart from this political organization of academic staff are widespread to protect their own interests.

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In the last 30 years, higher education in India has witnessed rapid and impressive growth. The increase in the number of institutions is, however, disproportionate to the quality of education that is being dispersed.[70] Unplanned over-expansion is often criticized as one of the biggest downfalls of Indian higher education.[71] Many institutions suffer from subpar quality and a lack of funding. As a result, entry into the top institutions is highly competitive and translates into a contest for higher entrance test scores and better private coaching institutes.[70]


Higher education in India faces problems ranging from income and gender disparities in enrolment, to poor quality of faculty and teaching and even to a general lack of motivation and interest amongst students.[70] Industries cite skill shortage as one of the major factors contributing to the mounting number of unemployed graduates.[71] Some of the main challenges faced by the Indian higher education system include:


The complex socio-political nature of the education sector in India makes it difficult to implement social reform. As a result, the overall quality of education suffers.[84]

Student advisory[edit]

While fee regulatory agencies fix a fee that cover expenses incurred by an institution along with a basic surplus,[88][89] many institutions have been charging a fee[90] that makes the venture profiteering. All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), the regulatory body for technical education in India, has called "upon the students, parents and the general public not to pay any capitation fee or any other fee other than that mentioned in the Prospectus of the Institutions for consideration of admission."[91] AICTE also mentions that the fee charged to students, including for programs such as PGDM, has to be approved by the fee regulatory committee of the state, and the institute should mention the fee on its website.[92] As per AICTE norms, the business schools are not meant to charge a fee higher than what is mentioned in the prospectus. Educational regulatory agencies, at the national level[93] and the regional level,[94] have mandated that an institution should include the fee in the prospectus.