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Ideology

An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely epistemic,[1][2] in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones".[3] Formerly applied primarily to economic, political, or religious theories and policies, in a tradition going back to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, more recent use treats the term as mainly condemnatory.[4]

The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy, a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher, who conceived it in 1796 as the "science of ideas" to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In political science, the term is used in a descriptive sense to refer to political belief systems.[4]

Epistemological ideologies[edit]

Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in scientific theories, the dominant paradigm or mindset can prevent certain challenges, theories, or experiments from being advanced. A special case of science that has inspired ideology is ecology, which studies the relationships among living things on Earth. Perceptual psychologist James J. Gibson believed that human perception of ecological relationships was the basis of self-awareness and cognition itself.[42] Linguist George Lakoff has proposed a cognitive science of mathematics wherein even the most fundamental ideas of arithmetic would be seen as consequences or products of human perception—which is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology.[43]


Deep ecology and the modern ecology movement (and, to a lesser degree, Green parties) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology.[44] Some notable economically based ideologies include neoliberalism, monetarism, mercantilism, mixed economy, social Darwinism, communism, laissez-faire economics, and free trade. There are also current theories of safe trade and fair trade that can be seen as ideologies.

Psychological explanations of ideology[edit]

A large amount of research in psychology is concerned with the causes, consequences and content of ideology,[45][46][47] with humans being dubbed the "ideological animal" by Althusser.[48]: 269  Many theories have tried to explain the existence of ideology in human societies.[48]: 269 


Jost, Ledgerwood, and Hardin (2008) propose that ideologies may function as prepackaged units of interpretation that spread because of basic human motives to understand the world, avoid existential threat, and maintain valued interpersonal relationships.[49] The authors conclude that such motives may lead disproportionately to the adoption of system-justifying worldviews.[50] Psychologists generally agree that personality traits, individual difference variables, needs, and ideological beliefs seem to have something in common.[50]


Just-world theory posits that people want to believe in a fair world for a sense of control and security and generate ideologies in order to maintain this belief, for example by justifiying inequality or unfortunate events. A critique of just world theory as a sole explanation of ideology is that it does not explain the differences between ideologies.[48]: 270–271 


Terror management theory posits that ideology is used as a defence mechanism against threats to their worldview which in turn protect and individuals sense of self-esteem and reduce their awareness of mortality. Evidence shows that priming individuals with an awareness of mortality does not cause individuals to respond in ways underpinned by any particular ideology, but rather the ideology that they are currently aware of.[48]: 271 


System justification theory posits that people tend to defend existing society, even at times against their interest, which in turn causes people to create ideological explanations to justify the status quo. Jost, Fitzimmons and Kay argue that the motivation to protect a preexisting system is due to a desire for cognitive consistency (being able to think in similar ways over time), reducing uncertainty and reducing effort, illusion of control and fear of equality.[48]: 272  According to system justification theory,[49] ideologies reflect (unconscious) motivational processes, as opposed to the view that political convictions always reflect independent and unbiased thinking.[49]

Ideology and the social sciences[edit]

Semiotic theory[edit]

According to semiotician Bob Hodge:[51]

"We do not need…to believe in an ideology. All that is necessary is for each of us to develop our good human qualities. The need for a sense of universal responsibility affects every aspect of modern life." — [54]

Dalai Lama

"The function of ideology is to stabilize and perpetuate dominance through masking or illusion." — [55]

Sally Haslanger

"[A]n ideology differs from a simple opinion in that it claims to possess either the key to history, or the solution for all the 'riddles of the universe,' or the intimate knowledge of the hidden universal laws, which are supposed to rule nature and man." — [56]

Hannah Arendt

. [1970] 1971. "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses." In Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press ISBN 1-58367-039-4.

Althusser, Louis

Belloni, Claudio. 2013. Per la critica dell’ideologia: Filosofia e storia in Marx. Milan: Mimesis.

. 1967 The Society of the Spectacle. Bureau of Public Secrets 2014 (Annotated Edition)

Debord, Guy

Duncker, Christian 2006. Kritische Reflexionen Des Ideologiebegriffes.  1-903343-88-7.

ISBN

—, ed. 2008. "." Ideologies Today 1. London. ISBN 978-1-84790-015-9.

Ideologiekritik Aktuell

. 1991. Ideology: An Introduction. Verso. ISBN 0-86091-319-8.

Eagleton, Terry

. [1965] 1973. Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes, translated by K. Kellen and J. Lerner. New York: Random House.

Ellul, Jacques

. 1996. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829414-6

Freeden, Michael

2010. Ideology and Ideologists. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Feuer, Lewis S.

. 2014. The Politics of American Foreign Policy: How Ideology Divides Liberals and Conservatives over Foreign Affairs. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Gries, Peter Hays

Haas, Mark L. 2005. . Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-7407-8.

The Ideological Origins of Great Power Politics, 1789–1989

. 2003. Ideology (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-29012-0.

Hawkes, David

. [1967] 1919–1923. History and Class Consciousness, translated by R. Livingstone. Merlin Press.

Lukács, Georg

and Iain Mackenzie, eds. Ideology after Poststructuralism. London: Pluto Press.

Malesevic, Sinisa

. 1936. Ideology and Utopia. Routledge.

Mannheim, Karl

. [1845–46] 1932. The German Ideology.

Marx, Karl

. 1985. Alien Powers: The Pure Theory of Ideology. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-01860-6.

Minogue, Kenneth

Minar, David W. 1961. "Ideology and Political Behavior." 5(4):317–331. doi:10.2307/2108991. JSTOR 2108991.

Midwest Journal of Political Science

Mullins, Willard A. 1972.:)) "On the Concept of Ideology in Political Science." 66(2):498–510. doi:10.2307/1957794.

American Political Science Review

Owen, John. 2011. . Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-14239-4.

The Clash of Ideas in World Politics: Transnational Networks, States, and Regime Change, 1510–2010

. 2007. "Why is Music so Ideological, Why Do Totalitarian States Take It So Seriously: A Personal View from History, and the Social Sciences." Journal of Musicological Research 26(2–3):91–122.

Sorce Keller, Marcello

Steger, Manfred B., and Paul James. 2013. "." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 12(1–2):17–40. doi:10.1163/15691497-12341240

Levels of Subjective Globalization: Ideologies, Imaginaries, Ontologies

. 2012. Ideology in Language Use: Pragmatic Guidelines for Empirical Research. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-69590-0

Verschueren, Jef

The Pervert's Guide to Ideology: How Ideology Seduces Us – and How We Can (Try to) Escape It

Ideology Study Guide

Louis Althusser's "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses"