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Incarceration in the United States

Incarceration in the United States is one of the primary means of punishment for crime in the United States. In 2023, over five million people were under supervision by the criminal justice system,[2][3] with nearly two million people incarcerated in state or federal prisons and local jails. The United States has the largest known prison population in the world, it has 5% of the world’s population, and 20% of the world’s incarcerated persons. China, with four times more inhabitants, has fewer persons in prison.[4][5] Prison populations grew dramatically beginning in the 1970s, but began a decline around 2009, dropping 25% by year-end 2021.[6]

For the incarceration rate in particular, see United States incarceration rate.

Drug offenses account for the incarceration of about 1 in 5 people in U.S. prisons.[7] Violent offenses account for over 3 in 5 people (62%) in state prisons.[7] Property offenses account for the incarceration of about 1 in 7 people (14%) in state prisons.[7]


The United States maintains a higher incarceration rate than most developed countries.[8] According to the World Prison Brief on May 7, 2023, the United States has the sixth highest incarceration rate in the world, at 531 people per 100,000. Expenses related to prison, parole, and probation operations have an annual estimated cost of around $81 billion. Court costs, bail bond fees, and prison phone fees amounted to another $38 billion in costs annually.[9]


Since reaching its peak level of imprisonment in 2009, the US has averaged a rate of decarceration of 2.3% per year.[7][10] This figure includes the anomalous 14.1% drop in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. There is significant variation among state prison population declines. Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York have reduced their prison populations by over 50% since reaching their peak levels.[11] Twenty-five states have reduced their prison populations by 25% since reaching their peaks.[11] The federal prison population downsized 27% relative to its peak in 2011.[12]


Although debtor's prisons no longer exist in the United States, residents of some US states can still be incarcerated for debt as of 2016.[13][14][15][16] The Vera Institute of Justice reported in 2015 that the majority of those incarcerated in local and county jails are there for minor violations and have been jailed for longer periods of time over the past 30 years because they are unable to pay court-imposed costs.[17]

References in popular culture[edit]

In relation to popular culture, mass incarceration has become a popular issue in the Hip-Hop community. Artists like Tupac Shakur, NWA, LL Cool J, and Kendrick Lamar have written songs and poems that condemn racial disparities in the criminal justice system, specifically the alleged practice of police officers targeting African Americans. By presenting the negative implications of mass incarceration in a way that is widespread throughout popular culture, rap music is more likely to impact younger generations than a book or scholarly article would. Hip hop accounts of mass incarceration are based on victim-based testimony and are effective in inspiring others to speak out against the corrupt criminal justice system.[367] The soul singer Raphael Saadiq's 2019 album, Jimmy Lee, thematizes racial disparities in mass incarceration as well as other societal and family issues affecting African Americans.[368]


In addition to references in popular music, mass incarceration has also played a role in modern film. For example, Ava DuVernay's Netflix film 13th, released in 2017, criticizes mass incarceration and compares it to the history of slavery throughout the United States, beginning with the provision of the 13th Amendment that allows for involuntary servitude "as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted". The film equates mass incarceration with the post-Civil War Jim Crow Era.[369]


The fight against mass incarceration has also been a part of the larger discourse in the 21st century movement for Black Lives. #BlackLivesMatter, a progressive movement created by Alicia Garza after the death of Trayvon Martin, was designed as an online platform to fight against anti-Black sentiments such as mass incarceration, police brutality, and ingrained racism within modern society. According to Garza, "Black Lives Matter is an ideological and political intervention in a world where Black lives are systematically and intentionally targeted for demise. It is an affirmation of Black folks' contributions to this society, our humanity, and our resilience in the face of deadly oppression." This movement has focused on specific racial issues faced by African Americans in the justice system including police brutality, ending capital punishment, and eliminating "the criminalization and dehumanization of Black youth across all areas of society."[370]

Capital punishment in the United States

Death in custody

Decarceration in the United States

Equal Justice Initiative

History of United States Prison Systems

Religion in United States prisons

Prison gangs in the United States

Prisoner rights in the United States

Prisoner suicide

Prisoner abuse

Social groups in male and female prisons in the United States

United States incarceration rate

Todd R. Clear; Natasha A. Frost (2015). The Punishment Imperative: The Rise and Failure of Mass Incarceration in America. NYU Press.  978-1479851690.

ISBN

(2003). Are Prisons Obsolete?. Seven Stories Press. ISBN 9781583225813

Davis, Angela

Enns, Peter K. (2016). Incarceration Nation: How the United States Became the Most Punitive Democracy in the World. . ISBN 9781316500613

Cambridge University Press

Gottschalk, Marie (2014). Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics. . Book Hardcover ISBN 9780691164052, eBook ISBN 9781400852147.

Princeton University Press

(2012). The Illusion of Free Markets: Punishment and the Myth of Natural Order. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674066162

Harcourt, Bernard

Hinton, Elizabeth (2016). From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Mass Incarceration in America. Harvard University Press.  0674737237

ISBN

Murakawa, Naomi (2014). The First Civil Right: How Liberals Built Prison America. Oxford University Press.  9780199892808

ISBN

Pfaff, John (2017). Locked In: The True Causes of Mass Incarceration-and How to Achieve Real Reform. Basic Books.  978-0465096916.

ISBN

Selman, Donna and Paul Leighton (2010). Punishment for Sale: Private Prisons, Big Business, and the Incarceration Binge. . ISBN 1442201738

Rowman & Littlefield Publishers

(2009). Prisons of Poverty. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0816639019

Wacquant, Loïc

Wacquant, Loïc (2009). Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity. . ISBN 082234422X

Duke University Press

. (2018). Carceral Capitalism. Semiotext(e). ISBN 978-1635900026

Wang, Jackie

Western, Bruce (2007). Punishment and Inequality in America. . ISBN 087154895X

Russell Sage Foundation

Morris, M. W., , New York: The New Press{{citation}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link). ISBN 9781620973424

"Pushout: The Criminalization of Black Girls in Schools"