Miguel Miramón
Miguel Gregorio de la Luz Atenógenes Miramón y Tarelo, known as Miguel Miramón, (29 September 1831[1] – 19 June 1867) was a Mexican conservative general who became president of Mexico at the age of twenty seven during the Reform War, serving between February 1859 and December 1860. He was the first Mexican president to be born after the Mexican War of Independence.
In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Miramón and the second or maternal family name is Tarelo.
Miguel Miramón y Tarelo
29 September 1831
Mexico DF
19 June 1867 (aged 35)
Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro Arteaga
Execution (by firing squad)
Panteón de San Fernando Mexico City
later transferred to Puebla Cathedral
A cadet in military school at the beginning of the Mexican–American War, Miramón saw action at the Battle of Molino del Rey and the Battle of Chapultepec during the American invasion of Mexico City. After the triumph of the liberal Plan of Ayutla in 1855, Miramón participated in a series of conservative counter coups until his efforts merged with the wider Reform War led by conservative president Félix María Zuloaga. The first year of the war was marked by a series of conservative victories achieved by Miramón, leading the press to dub him "Young Maccabee".[2] After a moderate faction of conservatives overthrew Zuloaga in an effort to reach a compromise with liberals, a conservative junta of representatives elected Miramón as president. Miramón would lead the conservatives for the rest of the war, leading two sieges against the liberal capital of Veracruz, where Benito Juárez maintained his role as president of the Second Federal Republic. The second siege failed after the United States Navy intercepted Miramón's naval forces, and liberal victories accumulated hereafter, ending the war in 1860. Miramón escaped the country and went into exile in Europe, being received at the Spanish court.
He returned to Mexico in 1862 during the early stages of the Second French intervention, offering his assistance to the Second Mexican Empire. Emperor Maximilian was a liberal and in order to diffuse conservative opposition to the Empire, he sent Miramón to Prussia, ostensibly to study military tactics. As the Empire began to falter, Miramón returned to Mexico, and joined Maximilian until the fall of the Second Mexican Empire in May 1867. The restored Mexican government had Miramón, Maximilian and Tomas Mejía court martialed and sentenced to death. They were shot on June 19, 1867.
Early life[edit]
Miramón was born in Mexico City on September 29, 1831, into a very traditional family of partial French heritage. His grandfather was from the province of Béarn.[3] He was the son of Colonel Bernardo de Miramón and his wife Carmen Tarelo. He was one of twelve children and enrolled in the military college on February 10, 1846. The Mexican–American War broke out a few months later. As the Americans entered Mexico City, Miramón himself would join the fighting and during the first weeks of September in 1847, he saw action at the Battle of Molino del Rey and the Battle of Chapultepec, being wounded and being taken prisoner during the latter. He was released in June, 1848 after the war had ended.[4]
In military school he went through the regular grades of promotion, from corporal to lieutenant of artillery. In 1852 he served in Jalisco, and in 1853 was in some actions under generals Mariano Salas and Rosas Landa in the department of Mexico. After that he saw much active service, and rose rapidly through the ranks, being made a brevet lieutenant colonel on 6 July 1855, and on the 30th of the same month a fully commissioned lieutenant colonel.[5]
La Reforma[edit]
During the period of La Reforma, Miramón participated in the various conservative counter revolutions after the triumph of the liberal Plan of Ayutla in 1855. He joined Antonio de Haro y Tamariz at Zacapoaxtla in 1856, fighting at the head of the 10th and 11th battalions at the Loma de Montero. He saw action at the goteras de Puebla on March 10, but went into hiding when the city fell.[6]
In October, 1856, he was second in command of a conservative revolt proclaimed at Puebla. With a thousand soldiers, he defended the city for forty three days against an army of six thousand man, causing great damage to the liberal forces. When the city finally fell Miramón refused to surrender and instead at the head of one hundred and fifty men fled and took the city of Toluca on January 18, 1857, seizing some artillery and then heading to the town of Temascaltepec where he was wounded and defeated. He was imprisoned, but escaped in September, soon after joining the reactionary forces in the South. As second in command, he captured the city of Cuernavaca and in January 1858 to Mexico City where the Plan of Tacubaya led by Félix Zuloaga had overthrown the liberal government of Ignacio Comonfort, also inaugurating what came to be known as the Reform War.[7]
Reform War[edit]
Early role[edit]
Miramón would play a key role in the initial offensive, and the series of conservative victories that occurred during 1858. On March 10, 1858, Miramón was a commander at the Battle of Salamanca, which opened up the interior of the country to the conservatives.[8]
On July 24, Miramón and Tomas Mejía captured Guanajuato, and they captured San Luis Potosí September 12. The liberal commander of the north, Santiago Vidaurri was then defeated by them at the Battle of Ahualulco on September 29. By October the conservatives were at the height of their strength.[9]
On December 20, 1858, about a year since he first came to power, Zuloaga had to face a pronunciamiento against himself led by a moderate faction of the conservatives who wished to compromise with the liberal government. Miguel María de Echegaray pronounced at Ayotla with a plan to summon a congress to frame a constitution suitable for the nation. Zuloaga passed measures to put down the revolt, assuming personal command of the forces at the capital, and forbidding all interaction with the rebels. He passed a manifesto condemning Echeagaray who was stripped of his post in the army. Manuel Doblado was also arrested.[10]
A modified form of the Ayotla Plan was proclaimed by Manuel Robles Pezuela on December 23, and found some military support in the capital. Zuloaga offered to resign if the objection was to him personally, but would not assent if the plan was meant to overthrow his conservative principles.[11] Miramón was offered command of the plan, but he rejected it.[12]
The Plan of Ayotla was actually an offshoot of the aforementioned fusionist party, a moderate faction, which did not seek to abandon conservative principles, but did seek an end to the war by seeking compromise with the liberals. Manuel Robles Pezuela arrived at the national palace on the morning of December 24, when he assumed the presidency.[13]
Robles Pezuela sent commissioners out to gain adherence to his plan, and began to assemble a junta of representatives ignoring, however the conservative hero Miguel Miramón, upsetting conservative hardliners. Robles, however eventually conceded in granting Miramón representation.[14]
The Junta assembled on December 30, 1858, and proceeded to elect a president. Miramón won with 50 votes against Robles’ 46, though the latter was authorized to act as provisional president until Miramón arrived in the capital.[15]
Meanwhile, Zuloaga still claiming the presidency, agreed to officially pass on the presidency to Miramón on January 31, 1859. To keep him from changing his mind, Miramón had him sent to the interior.[16]
Presidency[edit]
Miramón's most important military priority was now the capture of Veracruz. He left the capital on February 16, leading his troops in person along with his minister of war. Meanwhile, Aguascalientes and Guanajuato had fallen to the liberals. Liberal troops in the West were led by Degollado and headquartered in Morelia, which now served as a liberal arsenal. The conservatives meanwhile, feeling the effects of the malarial climate, abandoned the siege of Veracruz by March 29.[17] Degollado made another attempt on Mexico City in early April and was utterly routed in Tacubaya by Leonardo Márquez, who captured a large amount of war material, and who also in this battle gained infamy for including medics among those executed in the aftermath of the battle.
On April 6, the Juárez government was recognized by the United States, and on July 12, the liberal government nationalized the property of the church, and suppressed the monasteries, the sale of which provided the liberal war effort with new funds, though not as much as had been hoped for since speculators were waiting for more stable times to make purchases.[18]
Miramón met the liberal forces in November at which a truce was declared and a conference was held on the matter of the Constitution of 1857 and the possibility of a constituent congress. Negotiations broke down, however and hostilities resumed on the 12th after which Degollado was routed at the Battle of Las Vacas.[19]
On December 14, 1859, the Juárez government signed the Mclane Ocampo Treaty, which granted the U.S. perpetual rights to transport goods across three key trade routes in Mexico, including troops, and granted Americans an element of extraterritoriality. The treaty caused consternation among the conservatives, the European press, and members of Juárez' cabinet, however the issue was rendered moot when the U.S. Senate failed to approve the treaty.[20]
Meanwhile, Miramón was preparing another siege of Veracruz, heading out of the capital on February 8, once again leading his troops in person along with his war minister, hoping to rendevouz with a small naval squadron led by the Mexican General Marin, and disembarking from Havana. The United States Navy however had orders to intercept it.[21]
Miramón arrived at Medellin on 2 March, and awaited for Marin's attack in order to begin the siege. The American steamer Indianola however had anchored itself near the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, in order to defend Veracruz from attack.[22]
On March 6, Marin's squadron, composed of the General Miramón, and the Marques de la Habana, arrived in Veracruz, and captured by Captain Jarvis of the U.S. Navy. The ships were sent to New Orleans, along with the now imprisoned General Marin, depriving the conservatives of an attacking force and the substantial amount of artillery, guns, and rations that they were carrying on board for delivery to Miramón.[23]
Miramón's effort to siege Veracruz was abandoned on 20 March, and he arrived back in the capital on April 7. The conservatives had also been suffering defeats in the interior losing Aguascalients and San Luis Potosi before the end of April. Degollado was sent into the interior to lead the liberal campaign as their enemies now ran out of resources. He appointed Uraga as Quartermaster General[24]
Uraga split his troops and attempted to lure Miramón out strategically to isolate him, however On late May however, Uraga then committed the strategic blunder of attempting to assault Guadalajara with Miramón's troops behind him. The assault failed and Uraga was taken prisoner.[25]
Miramón was routed however, on August 10, in Sialo, which resulted in his commander Tomas Mejía being taken prisoner, and Miramón retreated to Mexico City. In response to the disaster, Miramón resigned as president, but the conservative junta only elected him president again after a two days interregnum.[26]
By the end of August, liberals were preparing for a decisive final battle. The capital was cut off from the rest of the country. Guadalajara was surrounded by 17,000 liberal troops while the conservatives in the city only had 7000. The conservative commander Castillo surrendered without firing a shot, and was allowed to leave the city with his troops. Meanwhile, Leonardo Márquez was routed on 10 November, attempting to reinforce Castillo without being aware of his surrender.[27]
Miramón on November 3 convoked a war council including prominent citizens to meet the crisis and by November 5 it was resolved to fight until the end. The conservatives were now struggling with a shortage of funds, and increasing defections. Nonetheless, Miramón gained a victory when he attacked the liberal headquarters of Toluca on 9 December, in which almost all of their forces were captured.[28]
General Gonzalez Ortega however approached the capital with reinforcements. The decisive battle took place on December 22, at San Miguel Calpulalpan. The conservatives had 8000 troops and the liberals 16,000. Miramón lost and retreated back towards the capital.[29]
Another war council now agreed to surrender. The conservative government fled the city, and Miramón intending to head towards the coast and Márquez escaped into the mountains of Michoacan. The triumphant liberals entered the city with 25,000 troops on 1 January 1861, and Juárez entered the capital at January 11.[30]
Court martial and execution[edit]
Maximilian, Miramón, and Mejía were tried for violating an 1862 Decree passed in the early stages of the French Intervention, against traitors and invaders.[62] After the trial, a unanimous verdict of guilty was brought forth on the night of June 14, and the sentence of death was passed.[63]
Among those who pled President Juárez to spare their lives was Miramón's wife who weeping with her two children, fainted at the foot of the president.[64] Maximilian wrote to his European relatives asking them to take care of Miramón's wife and her children.[65]
The three condemned were led to the Cerro de las Campanas outside of Querétaro on the morning of June 19. Miramón and Mejía stood to the side of Maximilian, but the latter then remarked to Miramón that “a brave soldier is respected by his sovereign; permit me to yield to you the place of honor,” and Miramón was subsequently given the center position. Before being executed he read a brief piece disavowing the charge of traitor. All three were executed at around seven in the morning.[66]