Monism
Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:
Not to be confused with Monotheism, Mohism, Maoism or Mo (religion).
There are two sorts of definitions for monism:
Although the term monism is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the mind–body problem, it has also been used to typify religious traditions. In modern Hinduism, the term "absolute monism" has been applied to Advaita Vedanta,[4][5] though Philip Renard points out that this may be a Western interpretation, bypassing the intuitive understanding of a nondual reality.[6] It is more generally categorized by scholars as a form of absolute nondualism.[7][8][9]
History[edit]
Monism has been discussed thoroughly in Indian philosophy and Vedanta throughout their history starting as early as the Rig Veda. The term monism was introduced in the 18th century by Christian von Wolff[10] in his work Logic (1728), to designate types of philosophical thought in which the attempt was made to eliminate the dichotomy of body and mind and explain all phenomena by one unifying principle, or as manifestations of a single substance.[10]
The mind–body problem in philosophy examines the relationship between mind and matter, and in particular the relationship between consciousness and the brain. The problem was addressed by René Descartes in the 17th century, resulting in Cartesian dualism, and by pre-Aristotelian philosophers,[11][12] in Avicennian philosophy,[13] and in earlier Asian and more specifically Indian traditions.
It was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by Hegel and Schelling.[14] Thereafter the term was more broadly used, for any theory postulating a unifying principle.[14] The opponent thesis of dualism also was broadened, to include pluralism.[14] According to Urmson, as a result of this extended use, the term is "systematically ambiguous".[14]
According to Jonathan Schaffer, monism lost popularity due to the emergence of analytic philosophy in the early twentieth century, which revolted against the neo-Hegelians. Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer, who were strong proponents of positivism, "ridiculed the whole question as incoherent mysticism".[15]
The mind–body problem has reemerged in social psychology and related fields, with the interest in mind–body interaction[16] and the rejection of Cartesian mind–body dualism in the identity thesis, a modern form of monism.[17] Monism is also still relevant to the philosophy of mind,[14] where various positions are defended.[18][19]
Different types of monism include:[14][20]
Views contrasting with monism are:
Monism in modern philosophy of mind can be divided into three broad categories:
Certain positions do not fit easily into the above categories, such as functionalism, anomalous monism, and reflexive monism. Moreover, they do not define the meaning of "real".
Monistic philosophers[edit]
Pre-Socratic[edit]
While the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details, the following pre-Socratic philosophers thought in monistic terms:[25]