No Child Left Behind Act
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB)[1][2] was a U.S. Act of Congress promoted by the Presidency of George W. Bush. It reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and included Title I provisions applying to disadvantaged students.[3] It mandated standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals could improve individual outcomes in education. To receive federal school funding, states had to create and give assessments to all students at select grade levels.
"No Child Left Behind" redirects here. For the Kanye West song, see No Child Left Behind (song). For the Viking album, see No Child Left Behind (album).Long title
An act to close the achievement gap with accountability, flexibility, and choice, so that no child is left behind.
NCLB
- Adult Education and Family Literacy Act
- Age Discrimination Act of 1975
- Albert Einstein Distinguished Educator Fellowship Act of 1994
- Augustus F. Hawkins-Robert T. Stafford Elementary and Secondary School Improvement Amendments of 1988
- Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998
- Civil Rights Act of 1964
- Communications Act of 1934
- Community Services Block Grant Act
- Department of Education Organization Act
- District of Columbia College Access Act of 1999
- Education Amendments of 1972
- Education Amendments of 1978
- Education Flexibility Partnership Act of 1999
- Education for Economic Security Act
- Educational Research, Development, Dissemination, and Improvement Act of 1994
- Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
- Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
- General Education Provisions Act
- Goals 2000: Educate America Act
- Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1986
- Higher Education Act of 1965
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
- James Madison Memorial Fellowship Act
- Internal Revenue Code of 1986
- Johnson–O'Malley Act of 1934
- Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 1997
- McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 1987
- Museum and Library Services Act
- National Agricultural Research, Extension, and Teaching Policy Act of 1977
- National and Community Service Act of 1990
- National Child Protection Act of 1993
- National Education Statistics Act of 1994
- National Environmental Education Act of 1990
- Native American Languages Act
- Public Law 88-210
- Public Law 106-400
- Refugee Education Assistance Act of 1980
- Rehabilitation Act of 1973
- Safe Drinking Water Act
- School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994
- State Dependent Care Development Grants Act
- Telecommunications Act of 1996
- Tribally Controlled Schools Act of 1987
- Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976
- Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century
- Workforce Investment Act of 1998
15 U.S.C. ch. 53, subch. I §§ 2601–2629
20 U.S.C. ch. 28 § 1001 et seq.
20 U.S.C. ch. 70
42 U.S.C. ch. 119 § 11301 et seq.
47 U.S.C. ch. 5, subch. VI § 609
47 U.S.C. ch. 5, subch. II § 251 et seq.
47 U.S.C. ch. 5, subch. I § 151 et seq.
47 U.S.C. ch. 5, subch. II § 271 et seq.
The act did not set national achievement standards. Instead, each state developed its own standards.[4] NCLB expanded the federal role in public education through further emphasis on annual testing, annual academic progress, report cards, and teacher qualifications, as well as significant changes in funding.[3] While the bill faced challenges from both Democrats and Republicans, it passed in both chambers of the legislature with significant bipartisan support.[5]
Many provisions of the act generated significant controversy. By 2015, bipartisan criticism had increased so much that a bipartisan Congress stripped away the national features of No Child Left Behind. Its replacement, the Every Student Succeeds Act, turned the remnants over to the states.[6][7]
Background[edit]
Prior to the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965.[8] Its goal was to provide additional resources to low-income students, but following its enactment, the nation repeatedly fell short of meeting the law's goal of providing full educational opportunities to students.[9] Fears concerning the American education system culminated with the 1983 release of a report entitled A Nation at Risk, written by President Ronald Reagan's National Commission on Excellence in Education.[10] This report suggested that America's economic security would be severely compromised unless there were a complete reorientation of the education system and an increase in the set of academic standards that students were expected to achieve.[11] Though many Republican groups historically opposed the active role of the federal government in education, lobbying efforts, public opinion, and other political developments in Washington (such as the Republican defeat in the 1996 presidential election) caused congressional Republicans to push for federal educational reforms that emphasized standardized testing and other accountability measures.[12] At the time, increased attention was being paid to the state of education in the nation because prior to the 2000 United States presidential election, then-candidate George Bush made a number of campaign promises related to bipartisan education reform.[13][14][15]
The increased focus in the United States on educational standards and accountability reflected international education policy developments and debates. After World War II, international organizations such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) devoted their attention to global educational development. From the 1960s onward, these organizations increasingly focused on learning outcomes and evaluation procedures that included the evaluation of education systems against defined standards of performance. The 2001 NCLB Act was part of this global movement toward greater accountability in education.[16]
Legislative history[edit]
President George W. Bush first proposed the use of federal aid to create a plan by which to hold schools accountable for the educational outcomes of their students on January 23, 2001; however, as it was initially described, the Act faced significant criticism from interest groups such as the Education Trust because of its inclusion of vouchers.[17][12] Vouchers would enable parents to choose a different school (public, private, or otherwise) for their child to attend if their district failed to meet state standards; however, critics stated that this move would take funds away from schools that needed the most funding.[17][18] The NCLB Act was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on March 22, 2001, and it was coauthored by Representatives John Boehner (R-OH), George Miller (D-CA), and Senators Ted Kennedy (D-MA) and Judd Gregg (R-NH).[19][20] As it made its way through the House of Representatives and the Senate, the bill faced a number of challenges, ranging from Democratic appeals for more funding, to Republican pushback on the increased role of the Federal government in the realm of education.[21] Despite this, the Act garnered bipartisan support in both chambers of the legislature, and it was passed in the United States House of Representatives on December 13, 2001 (voting 381–41),[22] and in the United States Senate on December 18, 2001 (voting 87–10).[12][23] The Act was then signed into law by President Bush on January 8, 2002.[20]
Effects on teachers, schools, and school districts[edit]
Increased accountability[edit]
Supporters of the NCLB claim one of the strong positive points of the bill is the increased accountability that is required of schools and teachers. According to the legislation, schools must pass yearly tests that judge student improvement over the fiscal year. These yearly standardized tests are the main means of determining whether schools live up to required standards. If required improvements are not made, the schools face decreased funding and other punishments that contribute to the increased accountability. According to supporters, these goals help teachers and schools realize the significance and importance of the educational system and how it affects the nation. Opponents of this law say that the punishments only hurt the schools and do not contribute to the improvement of student education.
In addition to and in support of the above points, proponents claim that No Child Left Behind:
Effects on student assessment[edit]
Several of the analyses of state accountability systems that were in place before NCLB indicate that outcomes accountability led to faster growth in achievement for the states that introduced such systems.[40][41] The direct analysis of state test scores before and after enactment of NCLB also supports its positive impact.[42] A primary criticism asserts that NCLB reduces effective instruction and student learning by causing states to lower achievement goals and motivate teachers to "teach to the test."[43] A primary supportive claim asserts that systematic testing provides data that shed light on which schools don't teach basic skills effectively, so that interventions can be made to improve outcomes for all students while reducing the achievement gap for disadvantaged and disabled students.[44]
Intended effects on curriculum and standards[edit]
Improvement over local standards[edit]
Many argued that local government had failed students, necessitating federal intervention to remedy issues like teachers teaching outside their areas of expertise, and complacency in the face of continually failing schools.[59] Some local governments, notably that of New York state, have supported NCLB provisions, because local standards failed to provide adequate oversight over special education, and NCLB would let them use longitudinal data more effectively to monitor Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).[60] States all over the United States have shown improvements in their progress as an apparent result of NCLB. For example, Wisconsin ranks first of all fifty states plus the District of Columbia, with ninety-eight percent of its schools achieving No Child Left Behind standards.[61]
The Joint Organizational Statement on No Child Left Behind[125] is a proposal by more than 135 national civil rights, education, disability advocacy, civic, labor, and religious groups that have signed on to a statement calling for major changes to the federal education law. The National Center for Fair & Open Testing (FairTest) initiated and chaired the meetings that produced the statement, originally released in October 2004. The statement's central message is that "the law's emphasis needs to shift from applying sanctions for failing to raise test scores to holding states and localities accountable for making the systemic changes that improve student achievement." The number of organizations signing the statement has nearly quadrupled since it was launched in late 2004 and continues to grow. The goal is to influence Congress, and the broader public, as the law's scheduled reauthorization approaches.
Education critic Alfie Kohn argues that the NCLB law is "unredeemable" and should be scrapped. He is quoted saying "[I]ts main effect has been to sentence poor children to an endless regimen of test-preparation drills".[126]
In February 2007, former Health and Human Services Secretary Tommy Thompson and Georgia Governor Roy Barnes, Co-Chairs of the Aspen Commission on No Child Left Behind, announced the release of the Commission's final recommendations for the reauthorization of the No Child Left Behind Act.[127] The Commission is an independent, bipartisan effort to improve NCLB and ensure it is a more useful force in closing the achievement gap that separates disadvantaged children and their peers. After a year of hearings, analysis, and research, the Commission uncovered the successes of NCLB, as well as provisions that must be significantly changed.
The Commission's goals are:
The Forum on Educational Accountability (FEA), a working group of signers of the Joint Organizational Statement on NCLB has offered an alternative proposal.[128] It proposes to shift NCLB from applying sanctions for failing to raise test scores to supporting state and communities and holding them accountable as they make systemic changes that improve student learning.
Replacement[edit]
On April 30, 2015, a bill was introduced to Congress to replace the No Child Left Behind Act, the Every Student Succeeds Act, which was passed by the House on December 2 and the Senate on December 9, before being signed into law by President Obama on December 10, 2015.[7][138] This bill affords states more flexibility in regards to setting their own respective standards for measuring school as well as student performance.[6][139]While the No Child Left Behind Act mandated labels for lower performing schools, the ESSA allows for no labels to be put on the lowest performing schools.[140]A school's success is also determined by 4-year and 5-year graduation rates rather than the previous 4-year determination. This further enables flexibility in standards of student performance.