Plague of Athens
Plague of Athens
The Plague of Athens (Ancient Greek: Λοιμὸς τῶν Ἀθηνῶν, Loimos tôn Athênôn) was an epidemic that devastated the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year (430 BC) of the Peloponnesian War when an Athenian victory still seemed within reach. The plague killed an estimated 75,000 to 100,000 people, around 25% of the population, and is believed to have entered Athens through Piraeus, the city's port and sole source of food and supplies.[2] Much of the eastern Mediterranean also saw an outbreak of the disease, albeit with less impact.[3]
The war, along with the plague, had serious effects on Athens' society. This resulted in a lack of adherence to laws and religious belief; in response, laws became stricter, resulting in the punishment of non-citizens claiming to be Athenian. Among the victims of the plague was Pericles, the leader of Athens.[4] The plague returned twice more, in 429 BC and in the winter of 427/426 BC. Some 30 pathogens have been suggested as having caused the plague.[5]
Background[edit]
Sparta and its allies, except for Corinth, were almost exclusively land-based powers, able to summon large land armies that were very nearly unbeatable. In the face of a combined campaign on land from Sparta and its allies beginning in 431 BC, the Athenians, under the direction of Pericles, pursued a policy of retreat within the city walls of Athens, relying on Athenian maritime supremacy for supply while the superior Athenian navy harassed Spartan troop movements. Unfortunately, the strategy also resulted in massive migration from the Attic countryside into an already highly populated city, generating overpopulation and resource shortage. Due to the close quarters and poor hygiene exhibited at that time, Athens became a breeding ground for disease, and many citizens died.[6] In the history of epidemics in wartime, the 'Plague' of Athens is remarkable for the limitation of the affliction to one side as well as for its influence on the outcome of the war. The Athenians thought that the Spartans could have poisoned their water supply to kill them to win the Peloponnesian War.[6] The Spartans somehow were unaffected by the plague, which may have been a reason for the Athenians' suspicion.[6] It has been noted that the Plague of Athens was the worst sickness of Classical Greece.
In his History of the Peloponnesian War, the historian Thucydides, who was present and contracted the disease himself and survived,[7] describes the epidemic. He writes of a disease coming from Ethiopia and passing through Egypt and Libya into the Greek world and spreading throughout the wider Mediterranean; a plague so severe and deadly that no one could recall anywhere its like, and physicians ignorant of its nature not only were helpless but themselves died the fastest, having had the most contact with the sick. In overcrowded Athens, the disease killed an estimated 25% of the population. The sight of the burning funeral pyres of Athens caused the Spartans to withdraw their troops, being unwilling to risk contact with the diseased enemy. Many of Athens' infantry and expert seamen died. According to Thucydides, not until 415 BC had Athens recovered sufficiently to mount a major offensive, the disastrous Sicilian Expedition.
The first corroboration of the plague was not revealed until 1994-95 when excavation revealed the first mass grave.[8] Upon this discovery, Thucydides' accounts of the event as well as analysis of the remains had been used to try and identify the cause of the epidemic.
Epidemiology[edit]
Thucydides claims that the plague spread from Ethiopia to Athens.[9] The plague first emerged in the port of Piraeus from ships with plague infected passengers. From there it spread to Athens via the Long Walls where refugees would camp out. The small space and poor hygiene of the people living in the Long Walls led to a significant spread of the plague.[10]
The plague affected certain groups over others, however, there is a lack of details of how the plague spread among inbreeds and certain working members.[11] Physicians and health care workers were at a higher risk to catch the plague due to the exposure of other diseases. Higher-ranking members of society were at a lower risk of catching the plague due to better living standards and better hygiene. Lack of food was not an issue for Athens, for they had plenty of grain storage. Athens lacked vitamin C due to their mainly grain diet.[12] The lack of vitamin C caused a lower immunity. The lower immunity left Athenians more susceptible to diseases. The Plague of Athens was most likely caused by a reservoir disease or respiratory disease, though neither has been confirmed. If the plague was caused by a reservoir disease, it would be very similar to arboviral diseases or typhus as later mentioned. If it was a respiratory disease, it would most likely be similar to smallpox.[13]
Most Athenian doctors and physicians believed in Humorism. The belief is centered around the idea that a person contains four humors-yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood-that must be equally balanced to have a healthy body.[14] Practices to balance the humors include blood-letting, purging, urine sampling, and using the opposite humor to treat the imbalanced humor.
According to Thucydides, the illness began by showing symptoms in the head as it worked its way through the rest of the body. He also described in detail the symptoms that victims of the plague experienced.[3]