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Pogrom

A pogrom[a] is a violent riot incited with the aim of massacring or expelling an ethnic or religious group, particularly Jews.[1] The term entered the English language from Russian to describe 19th- and 20th-century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement). Similar attacks against Jews which also occurred at other times and places became known retrospectively as pogroms.[2] Sometimes the word is used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish groups. The characteristics of a pogrom vary widely, depending on the specific incident, at times leading to, or culminating in, massacres.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]

For the racehorse, see Pogrom (horse). For the volcano in the Aleutian Islands, see Pogromni Volcano.

Pogrom

Predominantly Jews
Additionally other ethnic groups

Significant pogroms in the Russian Empire included the Odessa pogroms, Warsaw pogrom (1881), Kishinev pogrom (1903), Kiev pogrom (1905), and Białystok pogrom (1906). After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, several pogroms occurred amidst the power struggles in Eastern Europe, including the Lwów pogrom (1918) and Kiev pogroms (1919). The most significant pogrom which occurred in Nazi Germany was the 1938 Kristallnacht. At least 91 Jews were killed, a further thirty thousand arrested and subsequently incarcerated in concentration camps,[10] a thousand synagogues burned, and over seven thousand Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged.[11][12] Notorious pogroms of World War II included the 1941 Farhud in Iraq, the July 1941 Iași pogrom in Romania – in which over 13,200 Jews were killed – as well as the Jedwabne pogrom in German-occupied Poland. Post-World War II pogroms included the 1945 Tripoli pogrom, the 1946 Kielce pogrom, the 1947 Aleppo pogrom, and the 1955 Istanbul pogrom. In 1984 Sikh massacre, 3,000 Sikhs were killed brutally in the orderly pogrom.[13] In 2008, two attacks in the Occupied West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were labeled as pogroms by then-Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.[14] In 2023 a Wall Street Journal editorial referred to the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel as a pogrom.[15]

About 40 percent were perpetrated by the forces led by Symon Petliura. The Republic issued orders condemning pogroms,[42] but lacked authority to intervene.[42] After May 1919 the Directory lost its role as a credible governing body; almost 75 percent of pogroms occurred between May and September of that year.[43] Thousands of Jews were killed only for being Jewish, without any political affiliations.[36]

Ukrainian People's Republic

25 percent by the Ukrainian and various Ukrainian nationalist gangs,

Green Army

17 percent by the , especially the forces of Anton Denikin,

White Army

8.5 percent of Gergel's total was attributed to pogroms carried out by men of the (more specifically Semyon Budenny's First Cavalry, most of whose soldiers had previously served under Denikin).[39] These pogroms were not, however, sanctioned by the Bolshevik leadership; the high command "vigorously condemned these pogroms and disarmed the guilty regiments", and the pogroms would soon be condemned by Mikhail Kalinin in a speech made at a military parade in Ukraine.[39][44][45]

Red Army

Astashkevich, Irina (2018). Gendered Violence: Jewish Women in the Pogroms of 1917 to 1921 (Jews of Russia & Eastern Europe and Their Legacy). Academic Studies Press.  978-1-61811-616-1.

ISBN

Avrutin, Eugene M.; Bemporad, Elissa, eds. (2021). Pogroms: A Documentary History. Oxford University Press.  978-0-19-762929-1.

ISBN

Bemporad, Elissa (2019). Legacy of Blood: Jews, Pogroms, and Ritual Murder in the Lands of the Soviets. . ISBN 978-0-19-046647-3.

Oxford University Press

(2003), "Pogroms", in Heitmeyer, Wilhelm; Hagan, John (eds.), International Handbook of Violence Research, vol. 1, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-4020-1466-6

Bergmann, Werner

(6 December 2002). On the Study of Riots, Pogroms, and Genocide. Sawyer Seminar session on "Processes of Mass Killing". Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University.

Brass, Paul R.

(1966). Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. New York: Harper & Row. OCLC 220903085.

Cohn, Norman

(2010). "What's in a Pogrom? European Jews in the Age of Violence". In Dekel-Chen, Jonathan (ed.). Anti-Jewish Violence: Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35520-1.

Engel, David

Horvitz, Leslie A.; , eds. (2006). Encyclopedia of War Crimes and Genocide. New York, NY: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6001-6.

Catherwood, Christopher

, ed. (2011). "What was a Pogrom?". Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4.

Klier, John D.

McDermott, Jim (2001). Northern Divisions The Old IRA and the Belfast Pogroms 1920–22. Belfast: BTP Publications. p. 28.  1-900960-11-7.

ISBN

Shelton, Dinah, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity. Detroit: Macmillan Reference.  978-0-02-865847-6.

ISBN

Thackrah, John R., ed. (1987). Encyclopedia of Terrorism and Political Violence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.  978-0-7102-0659-6.

ISBN

Unowsky, Daniel. The Plunder: The 1898 Anti-Jewish Riots in Habsburg Galicia (Stanford UP, 2018)

Veidlinger, Jeff, ed. (1987). In the Midst of Civilized Europe: The Pogroms of 1918–1921 and the Onset of the Holocaust. Picador.  1-5098-6744-9.

ISBN

Velychenko, Stephen (2021). Ukraine's Revolutions and anti-Jewish Pogroms (historians.in.ua)