Problem solving
Problem solving is the process of achieving a goal by overcoming obstacles, a frequent part of most activities. Problems in need of solutions range from simple personal tasks (e.g. how to turn on an appliance) to complex issues in business and technical fields. The former is an example of simple problem solving (SPS) addressing one issue, whereas the latter is complex problem solving (CPS) with multiple interrelated obstacles.[1] Another classification of problem-solving tasks is into well-defined problems with specific obstacles and goals, and ill-defined problems in which the current situation is troublesome but it is not clear what kind of resolution to aim for.[2] Similarly, one may distinguish formal or fact-based problems requiring psychometric intelligence, versus socio-emotional problems which depend on the changeable emotions of individuals or groups, such as tactful behavior, fashion, or gift choices.[3]
"Problem" redirects here. For other uses, see Problem (disambiguation).
Solutions require sufficient resources and knowledge to attain the goal. Professionals such as lawyers, doctors, programmers, and consultants are largely problem solvers for issues that require technical skills and knowledge beyond general competence. Many businesses have found profitable markets by recognizing a problem and creating a solution: the more widespread and inconvenient the problem, the greater the opportunity to develop a scalable solution.
There are many specialized problem-solving techniques and methods in fields such as engineering, business, medicine, mathematics, computer science, philosophy, and social organization. The mental techniques to identify, analyze, and solve problems are studied in psychology and cognitive sciences. Also widely researched are the mental obstacles that prevent people from finding solutions; problem-solving impediments include confirmation bias, mental set, and functional fixedness.
Processes[edit]
Some models of problem solving involve identifying a goal and then a sequence of subgoals towards achieving this goal. Andersson, who introduced the ACT-R model of cognition, modelled this collection of goals and subgoals as a goal stack in which the mind contains a stack of goals and subgoals to be completed, and a single task being carried out at any time.[29]: 51
Knowledge of how to solve one problem can be applied to another problem, in a process known as transfer.[29]: 56
– Structured problem improvement approach
A3 problem solving
– Processes by which design concepts are developed
Design thinking
– Eight Disciplines of Team-Oriented Problem Solving MethodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Eight Disciplines Problem Solving
– Method for goal setting and problem solving
GROW model
– Theory in psychology
Help-seeking
– Book by George Pólya
How to Solve It
– Manner of solving problems
Lateral thinking
– Observe–orient–decide–act cycle
OODA loop
– Iterative design and management method used in business
PDCA
– Method of identifying the fundamental causes of faults or problems
Root cause analysis
– problem diagnosis method designed to determine the root cause of IT problemsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
RPR problem diagnosis
– Problem-solving tools
TRIZ
– Collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems
Swarm intelligence
– Study of non-linear complex systems
System dynamics
calculation
[68]
computer skills
[69]
game playing
[70]
lawyers' reasoning
[71]
managerial problem solving
[72]
mathematical problem solving
[73]
mechanical problem solving
[74]
personal problem solving
[75]
political decision making
[76]
problem solving in electronics
[77]
reading
[79]
social problem solving
[11]
writing
[80]
(large numbers of items, interrelations, and decisions)
complexity
enumerability
heterogeneity
(hierarchy relation, communication relation, allocation relation)
connectivity
dynamics
unpredictability
polytely
[81]
Complex problem solving (CPS) is distinguishable from simple problem solving (SPS). In SPS there is a singular and simple obstacle. In CPS there may be multiple simultaneous obstacles. For example, a surgeon at work has far more complex problems than an individual deciding what shoes to wear. As elucidated by Dietrich Dörner, and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke, complex problems have some typical characteristics, which include:[1]
– Statistics applied to risk in insurance and other financial products
Actuarial science
– Crucial skill in all different fields of work and life
Analytical skill
– mental process of searching for an original and previously unknown solution to a problemPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Creative problem-solving
– Group intelligence that emerges from collective efforts
Collective intelligence
Community of practice
– Practice of independent contractors or scientists sharing office space without supervision
Coworking
– Sourcing services or funds from a groupPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Crowdsolving
– A process of generating creative ideas
Divergent thinking
– IT service problem where the causing technology is unknown or unconfirmed, making the problem solving difficult to allocatePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Grey problem
– Practical implementation of improvements
Innovation
– Position in the philosophy of science
Instrumentalism
– Description of an issue
Problem statement
Problem structuring methods
– Description of the concept of shared intentionality
Shared intentionality
– solving a problem or resolving a conflict by bringing about structural changes in underlying structures that provoked or sustained these problemsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Structural fix
Subgoal labeling
– Form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes
Troubleshooting
– Problem that is difficult or impossible to solve
Wicked problem
Beckmann, Jens F.; Guthke, Jürgen (1995). . In Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J. (eds.). Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 177–200.
"Complex problem solving, intelligence, and learning ability"
Brehmer, Berndt (1995). "Feedback delays in dynamic decision making". In Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J. (eds.). Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 103–130.
Brehmer, Berndt; Dörner, D. (1993). "Experiments with computer-simulated microworlds: Escaping both the narrow straits of the laboratory and the deep blue sea of the field study". Computers in Human Behavior. 9 (2–3): 171–184. :10.1016/0747-5632(93)90005-D.
doi
Dörner, D. (1992). "Über die Philosophie der Verwendung von Mikrowelten oder 'Computerszenarios' in der psychologischen Forschung" [On the proper use of microworlds or "computer scenarios" in psychological research]. In Gundlach, H. (ed.). Psychologische Forschung und Methode: Das Versprechen des Experiments. Festschrift für Werner Traxel (in German). Passau, Germany: Passavia-Universitäts-Verlag. pp. 53–87.
Eyferth, K.; Schömann, M.; Widowski, D. (1986). "Der Umgang von Psychologen mit Komplexität" [On how psychologists deal with complexity]. Sprache & Kognition (in German). 5: 11–26.
Funke, Joachim (1993). (PDF). In Strube, G.; Wender, K.-F. (eds.). The cognitive psychology of knowledge. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. pp. 313–330.
"Microworlds based on linear equation systems: A new approach to complex problem solving and experimental results"
Funke, Joachim (1995). (PDF). In Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J. (eds.). Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 243–268.
"Experimental research on complex problem solving"
Funke, U. (1995). "Complex problem solving in personnel selection and training". In Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J. (eds.). Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 219–240.
Groner, M.; Groner, R.; Bischof, W. F. (1983). "Approaches to heuristics: A historical review". In Groner, R.; Groner, M.; Bischof, W. F. (eds.). Methods of heuristics. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 1–18.
Hayes, J. (1980). The complete problem solver. Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute Press.
Huber, O. (1995). "Complex problem solving as multistage decision making". In Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J. (eds.). Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 151–173.
Hübner, Ronald (1989). [Methods for the analysis and construction of dynamic system control tasks] (PDF). Zeitschrift für Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie (in German). 36: 221–238.
"Methoden zur Analyse und Konstruktion von Aufgaben zur kognitiven Steuerung dynamischer Systeme"
Hunt, Earl (1991). . In Sternberg, R. J.; Frensch, P. A. (eds.). Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 383–395. ISBN 978-1-317-78386-2.
"Some comments on the study of complexity"
Hussy, W. (1985). "Komplexes Problemlösen—Eine Sackgasse?" [Complex problem solving—a dead end?]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie (in German). 32: 55–77.
Kluwe, R. H. (1993). "Chapter 19 Knowledge and Performance in Complex Problem Solving". The Cognitive Psychology of Knowledge. Advances in Psychology. Vol. 101. pp. 401–423. :10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62668-0. ISBN 978-0-444-89942-2.
doi
Kluwe, R. H. (1995). "Single case studies and models of complex problem solving". In Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J. (eds.). Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 269–291.
Kolb, S.; Petzing, F.; Stumpf, S. (1992). "Komplexes Problemlösen: Bestimmung der Problemlösegüte von Probanden mittels Verfahren des Operations Research—ein interdisziplinärer Ansatz" [Complex problem solving: determining the quality of human problem solving by operations research tools—an interdisciplinary approach]. Sprache & Kognition (in German). 11: 115–128.
Krems, Josef F. (1995). . In Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J. (eds.). Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 201–218.
"Cognitive flexibility and complex problem solving"
Melzak, Z. (1983). Bypasses: A Simple Approach to Complexity. London, UK: Wiley.
Müller, H. (1993). Komplexes Problemlösen: Reliabilität und Wissen [Complex problem solving: Reliability and knowledge] (in German). Bonn, Germany: Holos.
Paradies, M.W.; Unger, L. W. (2000). TapRooT—The System for Root Cause Analysis, Problem Investigation, and Proactive Improvement. Knoxville, Tenn.: System Improvements.
Putz-Osterloh, Wiebke (1993). "Chapter 15 Strategies for Knowledge Acquisition and Transfer of Knowledge in Dynamic Tasks". The Cognitive Psychology of Knowledge. Advances in Psychology. Vol. 101. pp. 331–350. :10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62664-3. ISBN 978-0-444-89942-2.
doi
Riefer, David M.; Batchelder, William H. (1988). (PDF). Psychological Review. 95 (3): 318–339. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.3.318. S2CID 14994393. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-25.
"Multinomial modeling and the measurement of cognitive processes"
Schaub, H. (1993). Modellierung der Handlungsorganisation (in German). Bern, Switzerland: Hans Huber.
Strauß, B. (1993). Konfundierungen beim Komplexen Problemlösen. Zum Einfluß des Anteils der richtigen Lösungen (ArL) auf das Problemlöseverhalten in komplexen Situationen [Confoundations in complex problem solving. On the influence of the degree of correct solutions on problem solving in complex situations] (in German). Bonn, Germany: Holos.
Strohschneider, S. (1991). "Kein System von Systemen! Kommentar zu dem Aufsatz 'Systemmerkmale als Determinanten des Umgangs mit dynamischen Systemen' von Joachim Funke" [No system of systems! Reply to the paper 'System features as determinants of behavior in dynamic task environments' by Joachim Funke]. Sprache & Kognition (in German). 10: 109–113.
Tonelli, Marcello (2011). Unstructured Processes of Strategic Decision-Making. Saarbrücken, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing. 978-3-8465-5598-9.
ISBN
Van Lehn, Kurt (1989). "Problem solving and cognitive skill acquisition". In Posner, M. I. (ed.). (PDF). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. pp. 527–579.
Foundations of cognitive science
Wisconsin Educational Media Association (1993), , WEMA Publications, vol. ED 376 817, Madison, Wis.
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (Portions adapted from Michigan State Board of Education's Position Paper on Information Processing Skills, 1992.)
