Reflection seismology
Reflection seismology (or seismic reflection) is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite or Tovex blast, a specialized air gun or a seismic vibrator. Reflection seismology is similar to sonar and echolocation.
This article is about surface seismic surveys. For a related process, see Vertical seismic profile.Near-surface applications – an application that aims to understand geology at depths of up to approximately 1 km, typically used for and environmental surveys, as well as coal[22] and mineral exploration.[23] A more recently developed application for seismic reflection is for geothermal energy surveys,[24] although the depth of investigation can be up to 2 km deep in this case.[25]
engineering
– used by the hydrocarbon industry to provide a high resolution map of acoustic impedance contrasts at depths of up to 10 km within the subsurface. This can be combined with seismic attribute analysis and other exploration geophysics tools and used to help geologists build a geological model of the area of interest.
Hydrocarbon exploration
Mineral exploration – The traditional approach to near-surface (<300 m) mineral exploration has been to employ geological mapping, geochemical analysis and the use of aerial and ground-based potential field methods, in particular for greenfield exploration, in the recent decades reflection seismic has become a valid method for exploration in hard-rock environments.
[26]
Crustal studies – investigation into the structure and origin of the , through to the Moho discontinuity and beyond, at depths of up to 100 km.
Earth's crust
Protective measures are employed to address site-specific environmental conditions of each operation to ensure that sound exposure and vessel traffic do not harm marine mammals.
Surveys planned to avoid known sensitive areas and time periods, such as breeding and feeding areas.
Exclusion zones are typically established around the seismic source to further protect marine fauna from any potentially detrimental effects of sound. The exclusion zone is typically a circle with a radius of at least 500 meters around the sound source.
and listening devices are used to visually and acoustically monitor that zone for marine mammals and other protected species before any sound-producing operations begin. These observers help ensure adherence to the protective practices during operations and their detailed reports provide information on the biodiversity of the survey area to the local governments.
Trained observers
Sound production typically begins with a “soft-start” or “ramp-up” that involves a gradual increase of the sound level from the air gun source from a very low level to full operational levels at the beginning of the seismic lines – usually over 20 to 40 minutes. This soft-start procedure is intended to allow time for any animal that may be close to the sound source to move away as the sound grows louder.
Deconvolution
the conversion of acoustic waves two-way travel time to actual depth
Depth conversion
Exploration geophysics
LIGO
One-way wave equation
Passive seismic
a popular file format for seismic reflection data
SEG-Y
Seismic migration
Seismic refraction
open source software for processing of seismic reflection data
Seismic Unix
Seismic wave
Swell filter
Synthetic seismogram
Brown, Alistair R. (2004). Interpretation of three-dimensional seismic data (sixth ed.). Society of Exploration Geophysicists and American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 0-89181-364-0.
ISBN
Biondi, B. (2006). . Society of Exploration Geophysicists. ISBN 0-07-011117-0.
3d Seismic Imaging: Three Dimensional Seismic Imaging
Claerbout, Jon F. (1976). . McGraw-Hill. ISBN 1-56080-137-9.
Fundamentals of geophysical data processing
Ikelle, Luc T. & Lasse Amundsen (2005). Introduction to Petroleum Seismology. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 1-56080-129-8.
ISBN
Scales, John (1997). . Golden, Colorado: Samizdat Press. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015.
Theory of seismic imaging
Milsom, J., University College of London (2005). . Wiley Publications. ISBN 978-0-470-84347-5.
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Field Geophysics
Chapman, C.H.. (2004). Fundamentals of Seismic Wave Propagation. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-81538-3.
ISBN
The following books cover important topics in reflection seismology. Most require some knowledge of mathematics, geology, and/or physics at the university level or above.
Further research in reflection seismology may be found particularly in books and journals of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, the American Geophysical Union, and the European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers.
Biography of Henry Salvatori
– Geophysical Society of Tulsa
Proving That The Seismic Reflection Method Really Works
Reflection Seismology Literature at Stanford Exploration Project
Website of the International Association of Geophysical Contractors
(PDF)
IAGC/IOGP position paper on seismic surveys and marine mammals
Tutorial on seismic reflection data processing
Archived 13 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine