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Linguistic relativity

The idea of linguistic relativity, known also as the Whorf hypothesis, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (/səˌpɪər ˈhwɔːrf/ sə-PEER WHORF), or Whorfianism, is a principle suggesting that the structure of a language influences its speakers' worldview or cognition, and thus individuals' languages determine or influence their perceptions of the world.[1]

The hypothesis has long been controversial, and many different, often contradictory variations have existed throughout its history.[2] The strong hypothesis of linguistic relativity, now referred to as linguistic determinism, is that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and restrict cognitive categories. This was claimed by some of the early linguists before World War II;[3] but, it is generally agreed to be false by modern linguists.[4] Nevertheless, research has produced positive empirical evidence supporting a weaker version of linguistic relativity:[4][3] that a language's structures influence a speaker's perceptions, without strictly limiting or obstructing them.


Although common, the term Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is sometimes considered a misnomer for several reasons: Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf never co-authored any works and never stated their ideas in terms of a hypothesis. The distinction between a weak and a strong version of this hypothesis is also a later development; Sapir and Whorf never used such a dichotomy, although often their writings and their opinions of this relativity principle are phrased in stronger or weaker terms.[5][6]


The principle of linguistic relativity and the relationship between language and thought has also received attention in varying academic topics including philosophy, psychology and anthropology, and it has also influenced works of fiction and the invention of constructed languages.

The degree and intensity of linguistic relativity. Perhaps a few examples of superficial differences in language and associated behavior are enough to demonstrate the existence of linguistic relativity. Alternatively, perhaps only great differences that permeate the linguistic and cultural system suffice.

Whether conceptual systems are absolute or whether they can evolve.

Whether the similarity criterion is translatability or the use of linguistic expressions.

Whether the emphasis of linguistic relativity is language or the brain.

The totalitarian regime depicted in 's 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty Four in effect acts on the basis of the Whorf hypothesis, seeking to replace English with Newspeak, a language constructed specifically with the intention that thoughts subversive of the regime cannot be expressed in it, and therefore people educated to speak and think in it would not have such thoughts.

George Orwell

In his 1958 science fiction novel the author Jack Vance describes how specialized languages are a major part of a strategy to create specific classes in a society, to enable the population to withstand occupation and develop itself.

The Languages of Pao

In 's 1966 science fiction novel, Babel-17, the author describes an advanced, information-dense language that can be used as a weapon. Learning it turns one into an unwilling traitor as it alters perception and thought.[125]

Samuel R. Delany

's 1998 short story "Story of Your Life" developed the concept of the Whorf hypothesis as applied to an alien species which visits Earth. The aliens' biology contributes to their spoken and written languages, which are distinct. In the 2016 American movie Arrival, based on Chiang's short story, the Whorf hypothesis is the premise. The protagonist explains that "the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is the theory that the language you speak determines how you think".[126]

Ted Chiang

's four volume science fiction novel The Book of the New Sun describes the North American "Ascian" people as speaking a language composed entirely of quotations that have been approved by a small ruling class.

Gene Wolfe

Alford, Dan Moonhawk, , archived from the original on 5 September 2019, retrieved 22 May 2012

The Great Whorf Hypothesis Hoax

Boroditsky, Lera, , Edge

"How Does Our Language Shape The Way We Think?"

Boroditsky, Lera; Schmidt, Lauren; Phillips, Webb, (PDF), Language in Mind: Advances in the Study of Language and Thought, pp. 61–79

"Sex, syntax, and semantics"

Boroditsky, Lera; Segel, Edward (2011). . Frontiers in Psychology. 1: 244. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00244. PMC 3153848. PMID 21833297.

"Grammar in Art"

Deutscher, Guy (26 August 2010), , The New York Times Magazine

"Does Your Language Shape How You Think?"

Deutscher, Guy (2011), , Arrow Books, ISBN 978-0-09-950557-0

Through the Language Glass: Why the World Looks Different in Other Languages

Everett, Dan (2005), (PDF), Current Anthropology, 46 (4): 621, doi:10.1086/431525, hdl:2066/41103, S2CID 2223235, archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2012, retrieved 3 April 2008

"Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirahã: Another Look at the Design Features of Human Language"

Kay, Paul; Kempton, Willet (1984), "What is the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis?", American Anthropologist, 86 (1): 65–79, :10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00050, S2CID 15144601

doi

Kay, Paul; Chad K., McDaniel (1978), "The Linguistic Significance of Meanings of Basic Color Terms", Language, 54 (3): 610–646, :10.2307/412789, JSTOR 412789

doi

McWhorter, John H. (2016). The Language Hoax: Why the World Looks the Same in Any Language. Oxford University Press.  978-0190468897.

ISBN

O'Neill, Sean (2008), Cultural Contact and Linguistic Relativity Among the Indians of Northwestern California, University of Oklahoma Press,  978-0-8061-3922-7

ISBN

Swoyer, Chris (2015), , Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive

"The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis"

, Harvard Gazette, 22 July 2004

"Which comes first, language or thought?"