Social loafing
In social psychology, social loafing is the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when working alone.[1][2] It is seen as one of the main reasons groups are sometimes less productive than the combined performance of their members working as individuals.
"Loafing" redirects here. For the ice hockey term, see Loafing (ice hockey). For the sitting position of domestic cats, see Catloaf.
Research on social loafing began with rope pulling experiments by Max Ringelmann, who found that members of a group tended to exert less effort in pulling a rope than did individuals alone. In more recent research, studies involving modern technology, such as online and distributed groups, have also shown clear evidence of social loafing. Many of the causes of social loafing stem from individual members' feeling their individual effort will not matter to the group.[3][4] This is seen as one of the main reasons groups are sometimes less productive than the combined performance of their members working as individuals, but should be distinguished from the accidental coordination problems that groups sometimes experience.
Several studies found the most prevalent motivational origins of social loafing to be the lack of an understanding of individual contributions, unchallenging tasks given to the individual, low personal satisfaction from the task, and lack of a united group.[5] Theories investigating why social loafing occurs range from group members' feeling that their contributions will not be noticed to group members' realizing their efforts are not necessary.[6] In a work setting, most managers agree if a task is new or complex that employees should work alone, while tasks that are well-known and have room for individual effort are better when done in groups.[7]
In order to diminish social loafing from a group, several strategies could be put forward.[5] Social loafing primarily happens when an individual unconsciously or consciously exerts less effort due to a decrease in social awareness.[5] In order to counteract the likelihood of this happening, Miguel Herraez conducted a study on students where he used accountability and cooperation when unequal participation is found.[8] The students were encouraged to provide equal participation in the work and to point out sources of conflict that could arise. The conclusion of the study found that providing support to the group members lacking in commitment and creating options for independence among group members lowered social loafing.[8] The support for the weaker students improves their standing while also benefiting the other students.[8]
Gender and social loafing[edit]
In 1985, Gabrenya, Wang, and Latane found that in both Chinese and American cultures, social loafing varies between men and women. Women expressed less social loafing than men across different cultures. The authors argued that regardless of the change in social roles, genetic, and historical roles continue to make men more individualistic and women more relational.[15]
In 1999, Naoki Kugihara conducted another study in Japan on social loafing tendencies using similar methods as Max Ringelmann's rope-pulling experiment. He discovered that, when in a group, 40 percent more men exhibited less effort when performing the task than women, and attributed the difference to the tendency to have an interdependent self-concept.[16]
Effect of culture[edit]
In 1989, Christopher P. Earley hypothesized that social loafing would be mitigated in collectivist cultures that focused more on achievement of the group than the individual. He conducted a study in the United States and China, which are considered to be opposites in their cultural valuation of groups (with the U.S. being more individualistic and China being more collectivist[17]), in order to determine if a difference in social loafing was present between the two cultures. Earley formed groups from both countries similar in demographics and in time spent with each other (participants in each of the groups had known each other for three to five weeks). Each group was tasked with completing various forms of paperwork similar to work they would be required to do in their profession. The paperwork was designed to take two to five minutes for each item, and the items were turned in to an assistant when completed so that no one could judge their work compared to others. Each participant was given 60 minutes to complete as many items as possible and was separated into either the high-accountability group, where they were told they needed to achieve a group goal, or a low-accountability group, where they were told they were to achieve a goal alone. They were also separated into high and low shared responsibility groups. It was found that, consistent with other studies, highly individualistic people performed more poorly on the task when there was high shared responsibility and low accountability than when there was high accountability. The collectivists, however, performed somewhat better on the task when high shared responsibility was present, regardless of how accountable they were supposed to be as compared to when they were working alone. This evidence suggests that collectivist thinking reduces the social loafing effect. Further evidence from a similar study showed the effect was related to the collectivist thinking rather than nationality, as individualistic Chinese workers did indeed show a social loafing effect.[18]
Causes[edit]
Diffusion of responsibility[edit]
As the number of people in the group or team increase, people tend to feel deindividuation. This term defines both the dissociation from individual achievement and the decrease of personal accountability, resulting in lower exerted effort for individuals in collaborative environments. This phenomenon can thus decrease overall group effectiveness because it is contagious and hard to correct. Once identified by the group or team leader, it is their responsibility to reassess and put into motion new rules and expectations for everyone.
People could simply feel "lost in the crowd", so they feel that their effort would not be rewarded even if they put it forth. This idea can also cause people to feel as though they can simply "hide in the crowd" and avoid the averse effects of not applying themselves.[12]
When enthusiasm for the overall goal or task is diminished, overall contribution will drop. When one feels that their overall efforts are reduced or unimportant, they will likely become social loafers.
Motivation[edit]
Social psychological literature has found that the level of motivation one has to engage in an activity influences one's behavior in a group setting. This finding, deemed the collective effort model by Karau and Williams (1993, 2001) details that individuals who are more motivated are more likely to engage in social facilitation (that is, to increase one's efforts when in the presence of others) whereas those who are less motivated are more likely to engage in social loafing.[19] Researchers have determined that two factors which determine an individual's motivation, and subsequently whether or not the individual will resort to social loafing versus social facilitation, include the individual's expectations about attaining the goal and the perceived value of the goal.
Thus, a person's attitude toward these two factors will influence his or her motivation level and subsequent group behavior. Karau and Williams (1993, 2001) found that motivation was highest when the individual believed that the goal was easily attainable and very valuable. On the other hand, motivation was lowest when the goal seemed impossible and not at all valuable.[19]
Unfortunately, the presence of a group can influence one's perception of these two factors in a number of ways. For instance, working in a group may reduce or increase one's expectancy of attaining a goal. That is, depending on the qualities of the group members, an individual may find herself in a group of high achievers who work hard and are guaranteed success, whereas another may equally find himself in a group of lazy or distracted people, making success seem unattainable. Therefore, the link between one's personal efforts and success is not direct, as our success is influenced by the work of others. Similarly, the value of the goal may be contingent on the group members. For instance, if we must share success with all other group members, then the value of the goal is reduced compared to the value of the goal from an individual perspective. Hence, the dynamic of the group is an important key in determining a person's motivation and the likelihood of social loafing.[19] Additional factors which have been found to influence the likelihood of social loafing include one's gender, cultural background, and the complexity of the task.
Dispensability of effort[edit]
When a group member does not feel that his or her effort is justified in the context of the overall group, the individual will be less willing to expend the effort. If the group size is large, members can feel that their contribution will not be worth much to the overall cause because so many other contributions can or should occur. This leads people to not contribute as much or at all in large groups as they might have in smaller groups.
One example is voting in the United States. Even though most people say that voting is important, and a right that should be exercised, every election a sub-optimal percentage of Americans turn out to vote, especially in presidential elections (only 51 percent in the 2000 election).[20] One vote may feel very small in a group of millions, so people may not think a vote is worth the time and effort. If too many people think this way, there is a small voter turnout. Some countries enforce compulsory voting to eliminate this effect.
"Sucker" effect/Aversion[edit]
Some people feel that others in the group will leave them to do all the work while they take the credit. Because people do not want to feel like the "sucker", they wait to see how much effort others will put into a group before they put any in. If all the members try to avoid being the sucker, then everyone's effort will be significantly less than it would be if all of them were working as hard as they could.[21]
For example, in a workplace environment, the establishment of an absence culture creates an attitude that all employees deserve to have a certain number of days of absence, regardless of whether or not they are actually sick. Therefore, if an employee has not used the maximum number of absence days, "he may feel that he is carrying an unfair share of the workload".[4]
Attribution and equity; matching of effort[edit]
Jackson and Williams (1985) proposed that if someone feels that others in the group are slacking off or that others will loaf, he will lower his effort to match that of the others. This can occur whether it is apparent that the others are slacking or if someone simply believes that the group is slacking.[1][22] For example, in the Latane, et al., study above, if a participant heard the others making less noise than anticipated, he could have lowered his effort in an attempt to equal that of the others, rather than aiming for the optimum.[12]
Submaximal goal setting[edit]
By setting a goal that is based on maximization, people may feel that there is a set level that the group needs to be achieved. Because of this, they may feel they don't need to work as hard for the overall desired effect.
For example, in the Latane et al. clapping and shouting study, people who were alone but told that they were part of a group screaming or clapping could have thought that there was a set level of noise that experimenters were looking for, and so assumed they could work less hard to achieve this level depending on the size of the group.[12]
Non-involvement[edit]
Non-involvement social loafing has been linked to people the non-involvement of the members within the group Studies have shown that groups where the members were not personally involved in the project had a higher chance to experience social loafing. When members of a group can bring a contribution that is unique and that complements the project, loafing is highly unlikely to occur.[23] That contribution could be considered unique, if each member had a specific task that only he or she could and would do that would contribute to the completion of the project. Authors from Texas Wesleyan University confirmed that “individuals are less likely to loaf when they feel the contribution is unique, and no other group member can contribute the skills to the task that they can.”[24] Furthermore, when the project has a personal meaning to them, they are more involved and do not practice social loafing.
Bystander Behavior[edit]
Bystander behavior is the inhibiting influence of the presence of others on a person's willingness to help someone in need. When the group's size is large, there will be Bystander behavior. If someone is in trouble, people are less likely to help if other people are present. People assume someone else will help or take action. It has been noticed that even in emergencies, a bystander is less likely to help.[12]
Expectation[edit]
An individual's expectations will also affect their behavior; if the group size is large and they think people will slack off or not put in much effort, someone in the group may think, why should I make an effort. An individual's expectations, if not fulfilled, can lead to a decrease in the productivity of the employees.[1]
In group and out group[edit]
Social loafing can affect group cohesion and lead to an in-group and an outgroup. In groups are working hard to make much effort and contribute to the whole group's success; the outgroup is those who are not contributing much and are lazy. It can lead to increased conflicts between employees conducting to decrease in productivity.[12]
Consequences of social loafing[edit]
Effect on Individuals[edit]
Individuals within a group can also be affected by social loafing. Instead of focusing on excellence and achieving a goal, they may start to compare their effort with those around them. It can lower their feelings and satisfaction and potentially reduce their performance. If individuals feel that others are doing less work, perhaps relying on them, they might feel exploited and consequently reduce the amount of work they do; they become demotivated.[19]
