Third Macedonian War
The Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC) was a war fought between the Roman Republic and King Perseus of Macedon. In 179 BC, King Philip V of Macedon died and was succeeded by his ambitious son Perseus. He was anti-Roman and stirred anti-Roman feelings around Macedonia. In 172, a Roman commission visited Perseus and required of him concessions which meant the extinction of his independence. Upon his refusal to comply with the demands they returned home and Rome declared war.
Most of the war was fought in Macedon as well as neighbouring Thessaly, where the Roman troops were stationed. After an inconclusive battle at Callinicus in 171 BC, and several years of campaigning, Rome decisively defeated the Macedonian forces at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, ending the war.[1]
Rome's victory ended the Antigonid dynasty and brought an effective end to the independence of the Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon, although formal annexation was some years away. The kingdom was divided into four client republics, each subservient to Rome. Roman prestige and authority in Greece greatly increased.
Preparations[edit]
The consuls for 171 BC were Publius Licinius Crassus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Macedon was assigned to Publius Licinius and the command of the fleet was assigned to praetor Gaius Lucretius.[12]
Two legions were assigned for Macedon, each number 6,000 instead of the usual 5,200. Allied troops numbering 16,000 infantry and 800 cavalry accompanied them. Envoys were sent to confer with the Greek states. They received the support of Epirus, in western Greece, and Aetolia and Thessaly, in central Greece. The main Boeotian cities, though divided between a pro-Roman and a pro-Perseus faction, decided to break the treaty with Perseus to side with Rome. This broke up the league of Boeotian cities as some of them supported Perseus. In Rhodes a new leader persuaded the island to ally with Rome. Gentius, the king of Illyria, remained non–committal.[13]
A commission was sent to Greece. Perseus invited one of the commissioners, Marcius, for a meeting. He denounced Eumenes' allegations and others and claimed that his international relations were not aimed at preparing for war. Marcius advised him to send an embassy to Rome and arranged an armistice to guarantee safe passage. He did this because Rome was not ready for war. The army was preparing and had not yet gone to Greece.[14]
Many senators were pleased with the commissioners' diplomatic achievements. However, the older senators disapproved of the new policy of diplomacy, which they saw as not reflecting Romans' honour and courage and called for military action. As a result, 50 ships were sent to Greece and 2,000 troops were sent to occupy Larissa, the capital of Thessaly, to prevent Perseus from garrisoning it. Perseus' ambassadors arrived in Rome to argue for peace. The senate was not persuaded and they were ordered to leave Rome.[15]
Fleet commander Gaius Lucretius set off with 40 ships. He received ten vessels from allies in southern Illyria at Dyrrhachium (modern Durrës, Albania) and 54 light vessels from Gentius, which he assumed had been assembled for the Romans. He reached Cephallania (Cephalonia, an island in the Ionic Sea) where he was joined by seven ships from Roman allies. He then went to Corfu. The consul crossed the sea from Italy and encamped with his force near Apollonia.[16]
Perseus assembled his whole army at Citium. He had 39,000 infantry, half of which were phalanxes (heavy infantry). The force included 3,000 Cretans, 3,000 men from Agrianes, Paeonia and Parstrymonia (a Thracian area around the River Strymon, in modern Bulgaria), 3,000 Thracians, 2,000 Gauls, 3,000 Macedonian cavalry, 1,000 Thracian cavalry, and 500 men from various Greek states.[17]
Year two (170 BC)[edit]
Livy wrote that Publius Licinius, frustrated with his lack of success, turned against the Boeotians, mercilessly plundering several cities there, where he was wintering. The people of Coronea put themselves under the protection of the Senate, which ordered Licinius to release his captives. Gaius Lucretius was even more ruthless and rapacious, described by Livy as “oppressive to the allies, despicable in the sight of the enemy". Perseus, in a surprise attack on the Roman fleet stationed at Oreum on the island of Euboea, captured five warships and twenty transports laden with corn, and sunk the other ships. He then went to Thrace to help Cotys. Epirus, on the west coast of Greece, went over to the Macedonians.[29]
The consuls for 170 BC were Aulus Hostilius Mancinus and Aulus Atilius Serranus. Macedon was assigned to Aulus Hostilius and the fleet and the coast of Greece to the praetor Gaius Hortensius.
Aulus Hostilius was on his way to Macedon via Epirus. An Epirot leader wrote to Perseus to tell him to hurry there. However, the king was delayed. If he had attacked at the river passage, the newly recruited troops would have been defeated. In any case, Aulus Hostilius was informed and changed his route. He left Epirus and sailed to Anticyra (on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, in Boeotia) and marched to Thessaly. He immediately marched, but he was defeated. He gave up his useless attempts first to force his way through Elimea in south-western Macedon and secretly marched through Thessaly. Perseus anticipated his moves. Livy wrote that Gaius Hortensius did not conduct his naval operations “with sufficient skill or success, for none of his acts deserves better to be remembered than his cruel and perfidious plundering of the city of the Abderites when they endeavoured to avert, by entreaty, the intolerable burdens imposed on them". Perseus made an incursion against Dardania in southern Illyria, killed 10,000 and seized a large booty.[30]
An embassy from Chalcis (chief town of Euboea) came to Rome to complain about Gaius Lucretius (for plundering the city, a friend of Rome), and the current commander, Lucius Hortensius, for keeping the rowdy sailors in the town. Lucretius was put on trial and fined by the plebeian tribunes; the senate ordered Hortensius to free the men enslaved by Lucretius and to move the sailors off the island.[31]
It was suspected that Gentius might side with Perseus. Therefore, the senate sent eight ships with 2,000 soldiers to Issa. Aulus Hostilius sent Appius Claudius to Illyria with 4,000 men to protect the neighbouring states. He gathered 8,000 soldiers and sent them to Lychnidus, in the territory of the Dassaretians, a tribe in Epirus. Messengers from the nearby Uscana—a town allied with Perseus and garrisoned by Cretans—told Appius Claudius that some people in the town were willing to hand it over to him. He neither asked for hostages as a safeguard nor sent scouts. He encamped near the city and set out at night, leaving 1,000 men to guard the camp. The troops were not well organised, stretched out in a long and irregular line. They became separated in the dark. They did not see anyone on the walls as they approached. However, the defenders made a sortie, killing many of the Romans; only 1,000 escaped. Appius took the remains of his force to Lychnidus without taking care of the stragglers.[32]
This and other reverses were reported to Rome. The senate ordered two deputies to gather information on the situation in Greece. The deputies reported the successes of Perseus and the fear of the Greek allies about Perseus reducing many cities. They also reported that Publius Licinius' troops were, thin because he had granted leave to many of them, in order to gain popularity.[33]
Year three(169 BC)[edit]
Opening Stages[edit]
The consuls for 169 BC were Quintus Marcius Philippus (for the second time) and Gnaeus Servilius Caepio. The Macedonian War was assigned to Quintus Marcius and the command of the fleet to praetor Quintus Marcius Figulus.[34] The troops allocated for Greece were 6,000 Roman infantry, 6,000 Latin infantry, 250 Roman cavalry and 300 allied cavalry. The old soldiers were discharged, so each legion had 6,000 soldiers. The soldiers granted leave were recalled. The recruitment for the fleet was 1,000 Roman freedmen and 500 Italians and 500 Sicilians.[35]
When the snow covered the mountains of Thessaly, thus protecting Macedon from Roman attacks, Perseus attacked the Illyrians, who had granted free passage to the Romans. King Gentius had been wavering about whom to support. Perseus moved to the land of the Penestae (in southern Illyria) and went on to Stubera with 10,000 infantry, 2,000 light infantry, and 500 cavalry. From there, he marched on Uscana. In his discussion of the war's third year, Livy stated that Uscana apparently switched allegiance to Rome. The mixed Roman and Illyrian garrison refused to surrender and Perseus besieged it. The defending commanders soon capitulated, and asked to be allowed to leave with their weapons. Perseus agreed, but then disarmed them. He moved the population to Stubera and sold them as slaves. The 4,000 enemy troops were sent to various towns. He then marched on Draudacum, whose garrison surrendered, and then took eleven forts, capturing 1,500 Romans. He seized Oaeneus, killed the men and put the women and children in custody. He sent envoys to Gentius, to seek an alliance. Gentius said he did not have enough money for war. Perseus, who had a reputation as a miser, sent the envoys back but did not mention money, even though he had the proceeds from the slave sale. Perseus ravaged Ancrya, returned to Uscana, fortifying it, and then returned to Macedon.[36]
Lucius Coelius, a commander in Illyria, remained inactive while Perseus was there. After Perseus returned to Macedon, Coelius tried to recover Uscana, but was repulsed and returned to Lychnidus. He sent a detachment to the area to receive the hostages from the cities which had remained loyal (they were sent to Apollonia) and from the Parthini (a tribe of southern Illyria), who were sent to Dyrrhachium (modern Durrës, Albania). Perseus was invited by the Epirots to attack Aetolia and marched on Stratus, the strongest Aetolian city, with 10,000 infantry and 300 cavalry. He could not pitch camp on the snow-covered Mount Citium and had to encamp elsewhere. He then was held up at the River Aracthus because of its deep water. He built a bridge, crossed, and then met Archidamus, a distinguished Aetolian, who had persuaded the nobles to betray Stratus. However, while he was away, the pro-Roman faction called in a Roman garrison. Dinarchus, the commander of the Aetolian cavalry, also arrived with 600 infantry and 100 cavalry to support Perseus, but when he saw the changed situation he switched allegiance to Rome. Due to the winter weather, Perseus abandoned Stratus, and went to Aperantia, which, through the influence of Archidamus, willingly surrendered. Archidamus was made its governor, while Perseus returned to Macedon.[37]
Appius Claudius was eager make up for his defeat in Illyria and attacked a stronghold in Epirus. He had a force of 6,000, Romans and contingents of Thesprotians and from Chaon (both from Epirus). He was repulsed by the garrison. He besieged the city, but then lifted it due to a report that Perseus was marching there. He was pursued up an almost impassable mountain and lost 1,000 men, in addition to 200 captured. He then encamped on the plain. The pursuers were joined by an Epirot force that ravaged the area; 1,000 troops of the city of Antigonea were killed and 100 were captured in an ambush. They then encamped near Appius Claudius, who decided to go back to Illyria. He sent the soldiers to winter camps and returned to Rome.[38]
Spring Campaign[edit]
In early spring consul Quintus Marcius sailed with 5,000 men to reinforce his legions. They disembarked at Ambracia and moved towards Thessaly. Figulus took his fleet into the Gulf of Corinth. He left his ships at Creusis and traveled to join the fleet stationed at Chalcis overland. Aulus Hostilius, who had been protecting Rome's allies, had restored discipline in his troops and was encamped in Thessaly; he handed over his troops and returned to Rome. The consul started marching towards Macedon. Perseus sent troops to the mountain passes into Macedon.[39]
Quintus Marcius carried out a heroic march into Macedon through the Olympus mountains . He sent 4,000 light infantry ahead to secure the road to a pass near Octolophus, but the road was so difficult and steep that they advanced only fifteen miles and seven miles the following day. They spotted an enemy camp guarding the pass. Quintus Marcius stopped on a hill, which gave a wide view and ordered one day's rest. The next day he attacked with half his troops. The enemy had seen the Roman camp and was ready. The narrow ridge allowed for the deployment of only small numbers of light troops and so the engagement was limited to a skirmish. Perseus, who was not far, did not intervene or send more troops. Despite the presence of the enemy, Quintus Marcius had no choice but to persist. Leaving some troops to guard the summit, he marched across trackless places, having sent forward a party to open a road, with allied troops protecting them while clearing the way through the forests. Marcius kept the cavalry and baggage before him and closed the rear with his legions. The descent from the hill felled pack animals. Elephants threw off their riders and roared loudly, frightening the horses. A series of bridges (made with two long posts fastened to the earth to which ten-yard-long beams were attached) was made where the rocks were steep, in order to help the elephants. The Romans advanced only seven miles, and then waited for the troops at the camp to join them. On the fourth day they reached a pass and encountered similarly difficult terrain. As they approached the plain troops encamped between Heracleum and Libethrus, while some occupied a valley and part of the plain. The greater part was on hillsides.[40]
Perseus panicked. He evacuated the area and its strong posts, leaving them to the Romans, even though the area was easily defensible. He ordered the inhabitants of Dium, where he was encamped, to move to Pydna and moved his statues there. Quintus Marcius advanced, facing a difficult decision. The Romans could leave the area only through two passes: through the Vale of Tempe to Thessaly or on to Macedon by way of Dium, and both were guarded. The Romans could not withdraw to Thessaly lest they cut their supply lines. Furthermore, the Vale of Tempe was a difficult passage, dangerous even if not guarded. The precipices on both sides were steep and the passage was so narrow that it barely allowed a loaded horse. To make matters worse, guard detachments occupied four places along the pass. One was at the entrance, another in a thick forest and the third on the road where the valley was narrowest (Livy did not specify the characteristics of the fourth). The only way to retreat or receive supplies was to recross the mountains, but they were also difficult. It was also hard to pass unnoticed as the enemy was posted on the heights. The only option was the area between the bottom of Mount Olympus and the sea, but that was only one mile wide, half of which was the bog of the mouth of the River Baphirus and a large part of the remaining plain was taken up by the town. The small remaining space could easily closed by a short rampart with towers; construction material was abundant.[41]
Thessaly campaign[edit]
Quintus Marcius ordered Spurius Lucretius, who was in Larissa, to capture the deserted forts around Vale of Tempe. He sent scouts to check the roads around Dium and then he marched to the city. It was so rich and well-fortified that Quintus Marcius could not believe his luck that it had been evacuated. He continued his march, forcing the surrender of Agasse. To get a good reputation he did not garrison it and did not ask for taxes. He moved on to the river Ascordus, but, as he got further away from the supplies from Thessaly, plunder became scant and provisions were scarce, so he returned to Dium. The Roman fleet arrived, but he was told that the transport ships were in Magnesia, further south. He was informed by Lucretius that the forts he had taken were stocked with corn. Quintus Marcius moved his headquarters to Phila to distribute corn to the soldiers. Livy noted allegations that he had withdrawn because of fear that had he stayed he would have had to risk battle, and that he let his gains slip. With his withdrawal Perseus marched back to Dium, rebuilt the fortifications the Romans had pulled down, and encamped on the bank of the Enipeus to use it as a defence. Meanwhile, Quintus Marcius sent 2,000 men from Phila to seize Heracleum, halfway between Dium and the Vale of Tempe, and moved his quarters there, as if he intended to besiege Dium. Instead, he prepared for the winter and had roads built for the transport of supplies from Thessaly.[42]
Figulus sailed from Heracleum to Thessalonica. He pillaged the countryside and repulsed sorties from the towns, employing naval catapults. After this, the troops were re-embarked, and he made for Aenia, fifteen miles away, and pillaged its fertile countryside. He then sailed to Antigonea and did the same, but a Macedonian detachment intercepted the troops and killed 500 men. Another fight by the coast, assisted by men from the ships, had the Romans kill 200 enemies. The fleet sailed on to the district of Pallene (Chalkidiki peninsula), whose territory was by far the most plentiful. There, Figulus was joined by 20 ships from Eumenes II and five ships from Prusias I of Bithynia. This encouraged him to besiege Cassandrea, which connected the Pallene peninsula (one of the three long peninsulas that extend from the Chalkidiki peninsula) to the territory. An attack was repulsed by the city garrison. The arrival of a Macedonian ship from Thessalonica with Gallic auxiliaries ended the siege. The Romans and Eumenes considered besieging Torone, but changed their minds because of its garrison. They went on Demetrias, but they saw that the walls were fully manned. Thus, they brought the fleet into harbour at Iolcos, after pillaging the countryside.[43]
To remain active, Quintus Marcius sent 5,000 men to Meliboea by Mount Ossa, where it stretches out into Thessaly to command Demetrias. Works for a siege started. Perseus heard about this attack and sent one of his commanders with 2,000 men. His instructions were that if he could not dislodge the Romans at Meliboea he was to march on Demetrias before Figulus and Eumenes moved there from Iolcos. When the Romans at Meliboea saw him arriving they burnt the siege works and left. The Macedonians hurried to Demetrias. Figulus and Eumenes reached the walls of the city. Negotiations between Eumenes and Antimachus were rumoured, via the governor of the city and a Cretan, Cydas. Ultimately, the Romans left. Eumenes sailed to visit the consul and then returned to Pergamon. Figulus sent part of the fleet to winter at Sciatus and went to Oreum in Euboea with the rest of the fleet because it was a better base from which to supply Macedon and Thessaly. Livy noted different accounts about Eumenes. According to one he did not assist Figulus, even though he had asked for it. When he left for Pergamon he was not on good terms with the consul. Quintus Marcius could not get him to leave his Gallic cavalry behind.[44]
Ambassadors from Bithynia and from Rhodes went to Rome to propose peace. The Bithynians said that their king had promised Perseus to mediate for peace and asked the senate to give him this role. The Rhodians said that during the interwar period they had started a friendship with Perseus which they broke unwillingly because Rome wanted to draw them into an alliance. Now the war disrupted their trade, brought losses in port duties and in provisions and caused scarcity on the island. They said that they wanted peace and that they had also sent envoys to Perseus. They would consider what measures to take against either party who insisted on carrying on the war. This message was considered arrogant. Livy cited one source claiming it was ignored while others wrote that the senate replied that the Rhodians and Perseus had conspired against Rome and that the words of the ambassadors confirmed this. Once Perseus had been defeated, Rome would consider retribution.[45]
Aftermath[edit]
Aemilius sent his son, Quintus Fabius Maximus, who had returned from Rome, to sack Agassae, which revolted after it had surrendered to the consul and asked for an alliance with Rome, and Aeginium, which refused to believe the Roman victory and killed Roman soldiers who entered the town. Lucius Postumius was sent to sack Aeniae "because of its obstinacy".[91]
Commissioners were sent to Macedon and to Illyria. Livy wrote that the senate resolved that the Macedonians and Illyrians should be free "so that it might be clear to all the world that the arms of Rome did not carry slavery to the free, but on the contrary freedom to the enslaved; and also that amongst those nations which enjoyed liberty, the security and permanence of their liberty rested under the protection of Rome". This served Romans' self-image and as propaganda. The contracts for working the rich mines of Macedon and the leases of the royal domains were scrapped and were put under Roman tax collectors. The pretext was that without them “the law lost its authority or the subjects their liberty” and that the Macedonians were unable to work the mines themselves because those in charge would line their pockets and this could cause unrest. Ironically, the Roman tax collectors became notorious for lining their pockets. The Macedonian national council was abolished with the excuse that this was intended to prevent a demagogue from flattering the “mob” and turn the freedom granted by the Romans into a “dangerous and fatal licence.” Macedon was to be divided into four republics, each with its own council which would have to pay Rome a tribute which was half of what used to be paid to the king. The same regulations applied to Illyria. More definite arrangements were to be made by the commissioners.[92]
When the commission arrived from Rome, Aemilius gave notice for the representatives of all the cities to assemble at Amphipolis and bring all the documents they had and all the money due to the Royal treasury. A conference was held amid such a display of pomp and power that Livy wrote that it “might have even appalled the allies of Rome". It was declared that the Macedonians were to be free and retain their fields and cities and elect their officials. Then the partition, the borders of the four cantons, and the tribute were announced. Aemilius designated the four capitals. Intermarriage between people of different cantons and the possession of houses or land in more than one canton were banned. Gold and silver mines were not allowed to be mined, but iron and copper ones mining continued. Import of salt and wood cutting for domestic shipbuilding or allowing others to do so were forbidden. The cantons bordering other nations were allowed to have border troops.[93]
The Romans used their victory to increase their control over Greece by supporting pro-Roman factions. Their supporters had come to the conference from all over Greece. They made allegations that many of those who had supported Perseus in their cities and states had fostered hostility towards Rome, claimed that maintaining loyalty to Rome in their states required crushing them, and gave lists of names. The commissioners decided that those on the list had to go to Rome to defend themselves. Livy wrote that the pro-Romans were inflated “to an insupportable pitch of insolence". In Macedon everyone who had been in the king's service was sent to Italy with their children over fifteen.[94]
Aemilius sent Nasica and his son, Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, to ravage the areas of Illyria that had helped Perseus.[95]
Enslavement of Epirots[edit]
After the defeat of the Illyrian king, Lucius Anicius, the commander in Illyria placed garrisons in the Illyrian cities. Then he marched on Epirus to suppress the rebellion there. All the cities except Passaron, Tecmon, Phylacem, and Horreum, surrendered. Passaron was the first to be attacked. Its two leaders had incited Epirus to side with Perseus and told the inhabitants that death was preferable to servitude. A young noble stood against them and encouraged the people to drive the two out of the city, which then surrendered. At Tecmon the city leader was killed and the city surrendered. The other two fell after a siege. When Epirus was pacified and detachments wintered in various cities, Lucius Anicius returned to Scodra, the capital of Illyria, where five commissioners had arrived from Rome. There he summoned leaders from around Illyria to a conference. In agreement with the commissioners, he announced that the Roman garrisons were to be withdrawn from Illyrian cities. Some cities had deserted Caravantius and gone over to the Romans. They were exempted from paying a tribute. Rebel cities were also exempted. The three cities that had resisted the longest were to pay half of the tribute they paid to Gentius. Lucius Anicius also declared that Illyria was to be split into three cantons.[96]
Aemilius went to Epirus on his way back to Rome. The senate gave his army permission to plunder the cities in Epirus that had supported Perseus. Centurions were sent to tell the cities that they had come to remove to the Roman garrisons because the Epirots were to be free. The leaders of each city were summoned and told to bring the silver and gold in their towns to a designated place and that Roman cohorts had been ordered to visit all the cities. Troops were sent to seventy cities. This was coordinated so that they would reach each city on the same day. The precious metals were collected and then the soldiers sacked the cities. The city walls were demolished. The booty was enormous and part of the proceeds from its sale was given to the men of the army, 400 denarii to the cavalrymen and 200 to the foot soldiers. In addition to this, 150,000 people were enslaved. The troops resented that they were not given a share of the booty from the royal palace of Perseus “as though they had not taken any part in the Macedonian war". Aemilius then sailed to Italy with his army. A few days later Lucius Anicius, who had been meeting the representatives of the rest of the Epirots, told them that the senate wanted to hear from some of their leaders and ordered them to follow him to Italy. He then waited for the ships that had transported the army from Macedonia and back to Italy.[97][98]
Primary sources
Secondary Sources