Transcendental Meditation technique
The Transcendental Meditation (TM) technique is that associated with Transcendental Meditation, developed by the Indian spiritual figure Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. It uses a private mantra and is practised for 20 minutes twice per day while sitting comfortably with closed eyes.[1][2] TM instruction encourages students to be not alarmed by random thoughts which arise and to easily return to the mantra once aware of them.[3]
This article is about the techniques used in Transcendental Meditation. For an overview of the system and the movement, see Transcendental Meditation.
Advocates of TM claim that the technique promotes a state of relaxed awareness, stress-relief, creativity, and efficiency, as well as physiological benefits such as reducing the risk of heart disease and high blood pressure.[4] The technique is purported to allow practitioners to experience higher states of consciousness.[5] Advanced courses supplement the TM technique with the TM-Sidhi program.
The methodological quality of scientific research on the therapeutic benefits of meditation in general is poor, because of the varying theoretical approaches and frequent confirmation bias in individual studies.[6] A 2012 meta-analysis published in Psychological Bulletin, which reviewed 163 individual studies, found that Transcendental Meditation performed no better overall than other meditation techniques in improving psychological variables.[7] A 2014 Cochrane review of four trials found that it was impossible to draw any conclusions about whether TM is effective in preventing cardiovascular disease, as the scientific literature on TM was limited and at "serious risk of bias".[8] A 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis of 12 studies found that TM may effectively reduce blood pressure compared to control groups.[9]
Teachers[edit]
The Maharishi began training TM teachers in the early 1960s,[92] and by 1978, there were 7,000 TM teachers in the United States.[93] In 1985, there were an estimated 10,000 TM teachers worldwide,[94] and by 2003, there were 20,000 teachers,[95] and a reported 40,000 teachers in 2008.[96] Notable individuals trained to teach the Transcendental Meditation technique include Prudence Farrow,[97] John Gray,[98] Mitch Kapor,[99] and Mike Love.[100]
The first teacher training course was held in India with 30 participants in 1967 and 200 participants in 1970.[101] A four-month teacher training course was also held in the United States that year. The first part was four weeks long and was offered in both Poland, Maine and Humboldt, California with the final three months being held in Estes Park, Colorado. About 300 people completed the training.[102] In 1973, the TM teacher training course consisted of three months in-residence.[103] A 2007 TM web page and 2009 book, report that the TM teacher training course in more modern times consists of six months in-residence,[14] and includes courses in Maharishi Vedic Science, extended meditation practice and becoming the "custodian" for an "ancient Vedic tradition". Additionally, TM teachers are trained to speak on the Transcendental Meditation program, teach it to others, provide "personal checking" of their students' meditation, create lectures on related topics, organise and lead advanced TM courses and programs.[104] The Maharishi trained his teachers to "make logical presentations in language suitable to their audiences", and teachers lead their students through a sequence of predetermined steps.[102]
A 2007 research study reported that details of the training and knowledge imparted to teachers are kept private.[62] In 1976, Janis Johnson wrote in The Christian Century that TM teachers sign a "loyalty-oath employment contract", saying "It is my fortune, Guru Dev, that I have been accepted to serve the Holy Tradition and spread the Light of God to all those who need it."[64][105] Author William Bainbridge writes that a section of a training bulletin for TM teachers called "Explanations of the Invocation" draws a "connection to Brahma, the Lord of Creation".[35] A 1993 article in the Ottawa Citizen reported a partial translation of the puja as "Whosoever remembers the lotus-eyed Lord gains inner and outer purity. To Lord Naryan, to Lotus-born Brahman the creator, to Vaishistha, to Shakti, to Shankaracharya the emancipator, hailed as Krishna, to the Lord I bow down and down again. At whose door the whole galaxy of gods pray for perfection day and night".[106]
Research[edit]
Scientists have been conducting research on meditation, including TM, since the late 1960s and hundreds of studies have been published.[21]: 14 [107][108] Transcendental Meditation has become one of the most widely researched meditation techniques.[109][110] TM research has played a role in the history of mind–body medicine[111][112] and encouraged neuroscience research focusing on the effects of meditation.[113]
Early studies examined the physiological parameters of meditation. Subsequent research included clinical applications, cognitive effects, mental health, medical costs, and rehabilitation. Beginning in the 1990s, research focused on cardiovascular disease.[114] Research reviews of the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique have yielded results ranging from inconclusive[115][116][117][118] to clinically significant.[119][120][121][122][123] More research is needed to determine the therapeutic effects of meditation practices and sources vary regarding their assessment of the quality of research. Some cite design limitations and a lack of methodological rigour,[62][116][124] while others assert that the quality is improving and that when suitable assessment criteria are applied, scientific evidence supports the therapeutic value of meditation.[125][126][127] Reviewers Canter and Ernst assert that some studies have the potential for bias due to the connection of researchers to the TM organisation[128][129] while TM researchers point to their collaboration with independent researchers and universities as signs of objectivity.[130]