Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war
Turkey's involvement in the Syrian Civil War began diplomatically and later escalated militarily. Initially, Turkey condemned the Syrian government at the outbreak of civil unrest in Syria during the spring of 2011;[80] the Turkish government's involvement gradually evolved into military assistance for the Free Syrian Army in July 2011,[81] border clashes in 2012,[82] and direct military interventions in 2016–17,[83][84][85] in 2018,[86] in 2019, 2020, and in 2022.[87] The military operations have resulted in the Turkish occupation of northern Syria since August 2016.[88][89][90]
After a decade of relatively friendly relations with Syria from 2000 to 2010, Turkey condemned Syrian president Bashar al-Assad over the violent crackdown on protests in 2011[80] and later that year joined a number of other countries demanding his resignation.[91] From the beginning of the war, Turkey trained defectors of the Syrian Army in its territory under the supervision of the Turkish National Intelligence Organisation (MİT), among whom emerged the Free Syrian Army (FSA) in July 2011. In May 2012, the Turkish National Intelligence Organisation (MİT) began arming and training the FSA[81] and provided them with a base of operations. Tensions between Syria and Turkey significantly worsened after Syrian forces shot down a Turkish fighter jet in June 2012, and border clashes erupted in October 2012.[82] On 24 August 2016, the Turkish Armed Forces began a direct military intervention into Syria by declaring Operation Euphrates Shield, mainly targeting the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
Turkey has strongly supported Syrian dissidents. Syrian opposition activists convened in Istanbul in May 2011 to discuss regime change,[92] and Turkey hosted the head of the Free Syrian Army, Colonel Riad al-Asaad.[93] Turkey became increasingly hostile to the Assad government's policies and encouraged reconciliation among dissident factions. Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan declared his intent to "cultivate a favorable relationship with whatever government would take the place of Assad."[94] In 2017, it facilitated the establishment of the Syrian National Army of the Syrian Interim Government, which it finances.
A study by Metropoll in September 2019 found that 68% of Turks disapprove of the current government policies on Syria.[95][96] The poll also found that 47.5% of Turks see the Free Syrian Army as an "enemy". Three out of four Turks said that Syrian refugees should return to Syria "even if the war continues".[95] According to another research by Metropoll, the amount of support for 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria was at 79%, while Operation Olive Branch had 71% support.[97]
International collaboration[edit]
NATO schism[edit]
In late 2019, there were signs of a schism between Turkey and other NATO members, in which NATO was seen as effectively "powerless" to manage Turkish interventions and the Turkish government is aware that NATO does not hold much leverage.[343] Furthermore, US President Trump, as well as US military and diplomatic officials, has cited the NATO membership of Turkey as a key reason that the United States can not be involved in the conflict between the Turkish and Syrian Kurdish forces.[344] Meanwhile, due to Turkey's strategic position between Europe and the Middle East, the NATO alliance members are in a situation where they have limited themselves to relatively muted criticism.[345]
At the NATO summit in London in December 2019, President Emmanuel Macron of France highlighted major differences with Turkey over the definition of terrorism, and said there was little chance this aspect of the conflict could be resolved positively.[346] Macron criticized Turkey strongly for fighting against groups who had been allied with France and the West in fighting terrorism.[347][348]
Numerous issues in resolving the conflict emerged at the NATO summit in London. Turkey proposed a safe zone where Syrian refugees could be relocated, but this idea did not receive support from all parties.[347] One professed "exclusive" press report claimed that prior to the NATO Summit, there was a meeting at 10 Downing Street of the leaders of France, the UK, Germany and Turkey. One key point that emerged that the Western countries insisted that refugees could only be relocated voluntarily.[349] Meanwhile, there were concerns in NATO about Turkey's growing closeness with Russia.[350]
Erdogan claimed that a four-way summit on Syria was scheduled to occur in Turkey in February 2020, to include Turkey, Germany, the UK and France.[351]