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Ultra-processed food

An ultra-processed food (UPF) is an industrially formulated edible substance derived from natural food or synthesized from other organic compounds.[1][2] The resulting products are designed to be highly profitable, convenient, and hyperpalatable, often through food additives such as preservatives, colourings, and flavourings.[3] UPFs have often undergone processes such as moulding/extruding, hydrogenation or frying.[4]

Ultra-processed foods first became ubiquitous in the 1980s,[5] though the term "ultra-processed food" gained prominence from a 2009 paper by Brazilian researchers as part of the Nova classification system.[6] As of 2024, research into the effects of UPFs is rapidly evolving.[7][4]


Epidemiological data suggest that consumption of ultra-processed foods is associated with higher risks of many diseases, including obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, asthma, specific cancers, and all-cause mortality.[8] Food addiction may also be associated with consumption of ultra-processed foods.[9] Ultra-processed foods make up a significant proportion of the diet of developed countries, varying from 10% in Romania to over 50% in the United Kingdom and the United States.[4]


Some authors have criticised the concept of "ultra-processed foods" as poorly defined, and the Nova classification system as too focused on the type rather than the amount of food consumed.[10]

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Extent of change (from natural state)

Nature of change (properties, ingredients added)

Place of processing (where/by whom)

Purpose of processing (why, essential/cosmetic)

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Criticism[edit]

Following the publication of the Nova classification, some researchers questioned whether food processing should itself be considered a factor in nutrient intake, especially in a prominent 2017 criticism written by researchers, one of which was funded by Nestlé and the Kerry Group.[52] UPFs are imprecisely defined and it is unclear how any adverse effects on health may come about.[53]


In 2022, Carlos Monteiro and Arne Astrup argued for and against the Nova classification in a series of three articles written in the style of an Oxford debate. Montiero 'yes' argument states that the effects of ultra-processed food are demonstrated by representative dietary surveys and long-term cohort studies; that consuming ultra-processed food is associated with negative health outcomes; and that the associations are supported by discussions of specific mechanisms.[54] Astrup's 'no' argument states that the Nova definition of ultra-processed foods is ambiguous and inherently leads to misclassification of foods; that evidence is lacking for effects that aren't already accounted for by known factors such as nutrient composition; that existing evidence is limited to observational studies rather than being supported by randomized controlled trials; and that some ultra-processing techniques are valuable in achieving the transition to sustainable food production.[55] The two researchers nonetheless agreed that food processing significantly affects diet quality and health outcomes; that most types of food processing are harmless or beneficial, with a minority being harmful; that some characteristics of food processing are useful for food classification systems; and that further study is required to understand the effect of food processing on human health.[56]

Health effects[edit]

The effect of ultra-processed foods on health has mainly been investigated using nutritional epidemiology and so far there has been no randomized controlled trial to investigate the effect of these foods on any health outcome other than weight gain. These studies have shown an overall increased risk for disease,[8][40] although studies separating different types of ultra-processed food have found adverse effects mainly for only some sub-groups such as soft drinks.[41] Overall, there is an association between certain poor health outcomes – including poor cardiometabolic and mental health, and reduced life expectancy – and consumption of UPF.[7]


One possible explanation for the adverse effect on health are the high amounts of sugar, fat and salt in these foods, although that does not apply to all ultra-processed foods. Other potential explanations are the presence of contaminants, certain food additives, and the high heat treatment of these foods.[42] There is currently however no scientific consensus.[43]

Environmental impact[edit]

Beyond health implications, the production of ultra-processed foods also has significant environmental impacts.[44] These foods require extensive processing and packaging, resulting in higher energy consumption and waste production compared to minimally processed foods. Moreover, the globalized supply chains for the ingredients of ultra-processed foods contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.[45]

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Regulation and policy[edit]

Given the health and environmental impacts of ultra-processed foods, there have been calls for better regulation and policy surrounding these products. These measures face significant challenges, including industry opposition and the global nature of food supply chains. Future policy efforts may require a combination of regulation, education, and incentives to promote healthier, more sustainable food choices.


Four Latin American countries—Brazil,[46] Uruguay,[47] Peru,[48] and Ecuador[49]—have so far published national official dietary guidelines that recommend avoiding ultra-processed foods. Chile requires warning labels on some ultra-processed foods and taxes sugar-sweetened beverages.[50] A report on obesity published by the World Bank in 2020 mentions ultra-processed foods as a potential contributor.[51]


In 2022, the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) reviewed scientific literature to consider whether the British government should adopt a position on ultra-processed food and recommended further research, scheduling a review on its position for June 2024.[43]

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Food politics

Epidemiology of obesity

Junk food

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