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Bird anatomy

Bird anatomy, or the physiological structure of birds' bodies, shows many unique adaptations, mostly aiding flight. Birds have a light skeletal system and light but powerful musculature which, along with circulatory and respiratory systems capable of very high metabolic rates and oxygen supply, permit the bird to fly. The development of a beak has led to evolution of a specially adapted digestive system.

Cancella – minute scales which are really just a thickening and hardening of the skin, crisscrossed with shallow grooves.

Scutella – scales that are not quite as large as scutes, such as those found on the , or hind part, of the chicken metatarsus.

caudal

– the largest scales, usually on the anterior surface of the metatarsus and dorsal surface of the toes.

Scutes

Circulatory system[edit]

Birds have a four-chambered heart,[64] in common with mammals, and some reptiles (mainly the crocodilia). This adaptation allows for an efficient nutrient and oxygen transport throughout the body, providing birds with energy to fly and maintain high levels of activity. A ruby-throated hummingbird's heart beats up to 1200 times per minute (about 20 beats per second).[65]

List of terms used in bird topography

Respiratory system and respiratory organs in birds

Bird skulls and skeletons

The avian respiratory system

Histology of the avian respiratory system