Self-driving car
A self-driving car, also known as an autonomous car (AC), driverless car, robotaxi, robotic car or robo-car,[1][2][3] is a car that is capable of operating with reduced or no human input.[4][5] Self-driving cars are responsible for all driving activities, such as perceiving the environment, monitoring important systems, and controlling the vehicle, which includes navigating from origin to destination.[6]
This article is about the road vehicle type. For the general concept, see Vehicular automation. For wider applications, see Unmanned ground vehicle.As of early 2024, no system has achieved full autonomy (SAE Level 5). In December 2020, Waymo was the first to offer rides in self-driving taxis to the public in limited geographic areas (SAE Level 4),[7] and as of April 2024 offers services in Arizona (Phoenix) and California (San Francisco and Los Angeles). In June 2024, after a Waymo self-driving taxi crashed into a utility pole in Phoenix, Arizona, all 672 of its Jaguar I-Pace were recalled after they were found to have susceptibility to crashing into pole like items and had their software updated.[8][9][10] In July 2021, DeepRoute.ai started offering self-driving taxi rides in Shenzhen, China. Starting in February 2022, Cruise offered self-driving taxi service in San Francisco,[11] but suspended service in 2023. In 2021, Honda was the first manufacturer to sell an SAE Level 3 car,[12][13][14] followed by Mercedes-Benz in 2023.[15]
Testing[edit]
Approaches[edit]
ACs can be tested via digital simulations,[187][188] in a controlled test environment,[189] and/or on public roads. Road testing typically requires some form of permit[190] or a commitment to adhere to acceptable operating principles.[191] For example, New York requires a test driver to be in the vehicle, prepared to override the ADAS as necessary.[192]
Public opinion surveys[edit]
2010s[edit]
In a 2011 online survey of 2,006 US and UK consumers, 49% said they would be comfortable using a "driverless car".[245]
A 2012 survey of 17,400 vehicle owners found 37% who initially said they would be interested in purchasing a "fully autonomous car". However, that figure dropped to 20% if told the technology would cost US$3,000 more.[246]
In a 2012 survey of about 1,000 German drivers, 22% had a positive attitude, 10% were undecided, 44% were skeptical and 24% were hostile.[247]
A 2013 survey of 1,500 consumers across 10 countries found 57% "stated they would be likely to ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver", with Brazil, India and China the most willing to trust automated technology.[248]
In a 2014 US telephone survey, over three-quarters of licensed drivers said they would consider buying a self-driving car, rising to 86% if car insurance were cheaper. 31.7% said they would not continue to drive once an automated car was available.[249]
In 2015, a survey of 5,000 people from 109 countries reported that average respondents found manual driving the most enjoyable. 22% did not want to pay more money for autonomy. Respondents were found to be most concerned about hacking/misuse, and were also concerned about legal issues and safety. Finally, respondents from more developed countries were less comfortable with their vehicle sharing data.[250] The survey reported consumer interest in purchasing an AC, stating that 37% of surveyed current owners were either "definitely" or "probably" interested.[250]
In 2016, a survey of 1,603 people in Germany that controlled for age, gender, and education reported that men felt less anxiety and more enthusiasm, whereas women showed the opposite. The difference was pronounced between young men and women and decreased with age.[251]
In a 2016 US survey of 1,584 people, "66 percent of respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver". People were worried about safety and hacking risk. Nevertheless, only 13% of the interviewees saw no advantages in this new kind of cars.[252]
In a 2017 survey of 4,135 US adults found that many Americans anticipated significant impacts from various automation technologies including the widespread adoption of automated vehicles.[253]
In 2019, results from two opinion surveys of 54 and 187 US adults respectively were published. The questionnaire was termed the autonomous vehicle acceptance model (AVAM), including additional description to help respondents better understand the implications of various automation levels. Users were less accepting of high autonomy levels and displayed significantly lower intention to use autonomous vehicles. Additionally, partial autonomy (regardless of level) was perceived as requiring uniformly higher driver engagement (usage of hands, feet and eyes) than full autonomy.[254]
In the 2020s[edit]
In 2022, a survey reported that only a quarter (27%) of the world's population would feel safe in self-driving cars.[255]
In 2024, a study by Saravanos et al.[256] at New York University reported that 87% of their respondents (from a sample of 358) believed that conditionally automated cars (at Level 3) would be easy to use.
Opinion surveys may have little salience given that few respondents had any personal experience with ACs.