Bullying
Bullying is the use of force, coercion, hurtful teasing or threat, to abuse, aggressively dominate or intimidate. The behavior is often repeated and habitual. One essential prerequisite is the perception (by the bully or by others) of an imbalance of physical or social power. This imbalance distinguishes bullying from conflict.[1][2] Bullying is a subcategory of aggressive behavior characterized by hostile intent, imbalance of power and repetition over a period of time.[3]
"Bully" redirects here. For other uses, see Bully (disambiguation).
Bullying can be done individually or by a group, called mobbing,[4] in which the bully may have one or more followers who are willing to assist the primary bully or who reinforce the bully by providing positive feedback such as laughing.[5] Bullying in school and the workplace is also referred to as "peer abuse".[6] Robert W. Fuller has analyzed bullying in the context of rankism.[7] The Swedish-Norwegian researcher Dan Olweus says bullying occurs when a person is "exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons",[8] and that negative actions occur "when a person intentionally inflicts injury or discomfort upon another person, through physical contact, through words or in other ways".[8] Individual bullying is usually characterized by a person behaving in a certain way to gain power over another person.[9]
A bullying culture can develop in any context in which humans interact with each other. This may include school, family, the workplace,[10] the home, and neighborhoods. When bullying occurs in college and university settings, the practice is known as ragging in certain countries, especially those of the Indian subcontinent.[11] The main platform for bullying in contemporary culture is on social media websites.[12] In a 2012 study of male adolescent American football players, "the strongest predictor [of bullying] was the perception of whether the most influential male in a player's life would approve of the bullying behavior."[13] A study by The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health in 2019 showed a relationship between social media use by girls and an increase in their exposure to bullying.[14]
Bullying may be defined in many different ways. In the United Kingdom, there is no legal definition of bullying,[15] while some states in the United States have laws against it.[16] Bullying is divided into four basic types of abuse: psychological (sometimes called emotional or relational), verbal, physical, and cyber, though an encounter can fall into multiple of these categories.[17]
Behaviors used to assert such domination may include physical assault or coercion, verbal harassment, or threat, and such acts may be directed repeatedly toward particular targets. Rationalizations of such behavior sometimes include differences of social class, race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, appearance, behavior, body language, personality, reputation, lineage, strength, size, or ability.[18][19][20]
Etymology
The word "bully" was first used in the 1530s meaning "sweetheart", applied to either sex, from the Dutch: boel, "lover, brother", probably diminutive of Middle High German: buole, "brother", of uncertain origin (compare with the German buhle "lover"). The meaning deteriorated through the 17th century through "fine fellow", "blusterer", to "harasser of the weak". This may have been as a connecting sense between "lover" and "ruffian" as in "protector of a prostitute", which was one sense of "bully" (though not specifically attested until 1706). The verb "to bully" is first attested in 1710.[21]
In the past, in the American culture, the term has been used as an exclamation and exhortation. Especially known famously in association with Theodore Roosevelt.[22] In 1907 Roosevelt coined the phrase, as a deprecating term "bully for him".[23] Currently in the present day the bully pulpit refers to the use of a high position to influence the general public's thoughts and to initiate changes.[24] As shown the term bully has been significantly modified through the years, and through language translations, it has shifted from terms of endearment to a form of sarcastic jesting, and then to an action against others and something to be fearful of.
Characteristics
Bullies and accomplices
Studies have shown that envy and resentment may be motives for bullying.[38] Research on the self-esteem of bullies has produced equivocal results.[39][40] While some bullies are arrogant and narcissistic,[41] they can also use bullying as a tool to conceal shame or anxiety or to boost self-esteem: by demeaning others, the abuser feels empowered.[42] Bullies may bully out of jealousy or because they themselves are bullied.[43] Psychologist Roy Baumeister asserts that people who are prone to abusive behavior tend to have inflated but fragile egos. Because they think too highly of themselves, they are frequently offended by the criticisms and lack of deference of other people, and react to this disrespect with violence and insults.[44]
Researchers have identified other risk factors such as depression[45] and personality disorders,[46] as well as quickness to anger and use of force, addiction to aggressive behaviors, mistaking others' actions as hostile, concern with preserving self-image, and engaging in obsessive or rigid actions.[47] A combination of these factors may also be causes of this behavior.[48] In one study of youth, a combination of antisocial traits and depression was found to be the best predictor of youth violence, whereas video game violence and television violence exposure were not predictive of these behaviors.[49]
Bullying may also result from a genetic predisposition or a brain abnormality in the bully.[50] While parents can help a toddler develop emotional regulation and control to restrict aggressive behavior, some children fail to develop these skills due to insecure attachment with their families, ineffective discipline, and environmental factors such as a stressful home life and hostile siblings.[30] Moreover, according to some researchers, bullies may be inclined toward negativity and perform poorly academically. Dr. Cook says, "A typical bully has trouble resolving problems with others and also has trouble academically. He or she usually has negative attitudes and beliefs about others, feels negatively toward himself/herself, comes from a family environment characterized by conflict and poor parenting, perceives school as negative and is negatively influenced by peers."[51]
Contrarily, some researchers have suggested that some bullies are psychologically strongest and have high social standing among their peers, while their targets are emotionally distressed and socially marginalized.[52] Peer groups often promote the bully's actions, and members of these peer groups also engage in behaviors, such as mocking, excluding, punching, and insulting one another as a source of entertainment.[30] Other researchers also argued that a minority of the bullies, those who are not in-turn bullied, enjoy going to school, and are least likely to take days off sick.[53]
Research indicates that adults who bully have authoritarian personalities, combined with a strong need to control or dominate.[54] It has also been suggested that a prejudicial view of subordinates can be a particularly strong risk factor.[55]
In a recent study, bullies showed lower school performance-related self-esteem than non-involved students. They also showed higher social self-esteem than victims of traditional bullying.[56]
Brain studies have shown that the section of the brain associated with reward becomes active when bullies are shown a video of someone inflicting pain on another.[57]
Bystanders
Often, bullying takes place in the presence of a large group of relatively uninvolved bystanders. In many cases, it is the bully's ability to create the illusion they have the support of the majority present that instills the fear of "speaking out" in protestation of the bullying activities being observed by the group. Unless the "bully mentality" is effectively challenged in any given group in its early stages, it often becomes an accepted, or supported, norm within the group.[58][59]
Unless action is taken, a "culture of bullying" is often perpetuated within a group for months, years, or longer.[60]
Bystanders who have been able to establish their own "friendship group" or "support group" have been found to be far more likely to opt to speak out against bullying behavior than those who have not.[61][62]
In addition to communication of clear expectations that bystanders should intervene and increasing individual self-efficacy, there is growing research to suggest interventions should build on the foundation that bullying is morally wrong.[63]
Among adults, being a bystander to workplace bullying was linked to depression.[64]
The Bystander effect can be detrimental to the person being bullied.[65] People are less likely to stand up for someone or something when others are around. In the case of cyberbullying, people that see bullying happen on social media are less likely to say something back, whether online or in person. People can have good intentions and want to help, but with no action nothing will be accomplished. "The act of others stepping in is what will stop bullying".[66] To stop the Bystander effect, people should be confident and stand up for what they believe in. Do not worry what people think of you, rather think of what the benefits can be for the person being bullied.
Victims
Dr. Cook says, "A typical victim is likely to be aggressive, lack social skills, think negative thoughts, experience difficulties in solving social problems, come from a negative family, school and community environments and be noticeably rejected and isolated by peers."[51] Victims often have characteristics such as being physically and mentally weak, as well as being easily distraught emotionally. They may also have physical characteristics that make them easier targets for bullies such as being overweight or having some type of physical deformity. Boys are more likely to be victims of physical bullying while girls are more likely to be bullied indirectly.[67]
Low levels of self-esteem has been identified as a frequent antecedent of bullying victimization. Victims of traditional bullying tend to have lower global, social, body-related, and emotional self-esteem compared to uninvolved students.[56][68][69][70][71]
Victims of cyberbullying, on the other hand, may not have lower self-esteem scores than uninvolved students but might have higher body-related self-esteem than both victims of traditional bullying and bullies.[56]
It has also been shown that victims are more likely to employ self-defeating or self-deprecating humor intended to entertain others at the expense of themselves and their own feelings.[72]
The results of a meta-analysis conducted by Cook and published by the American Psychological Association in 2010 concluded the main risk factors for children and adolescents being bullied, and also for becoming bullies, are the lack of social problem-solving skills.[51]
Children who are bullied often show physical or emotional signs, such as: being afraid to attend school, complaining of headaches or a loss of appetite, a lack of interest in school activities, or in spending time with friends or family, reluctance to go out in public for fear they may encounter their bullies in public places other than school, and having an overall sense of sadness.
Prevention
Bullying prevention is the collective effort to prevent, reduce and stop bullying.[139] Many campaigns and events are designated to bullying prevention throughout the world. Bullying prevention campaigns and events include Anti-Bullying Day, Anti-Bullying Week, International Day of Pink, International STAND UP to Bullying Day and National Bullying Prevention Month. Anti-bullying laws in the U.S. have also been enacted in 23 of its 50 states, making bullying in schools illegal.[140]
A 2019 study by McCallion & Feder found that school-based anti-bullying programs may lower the incidence of bullying by 25%.[141]
Bullying prevention programs allow schools to help decrease cyberbullying within he realm of school. The prevention methods are targeted mainly for middle schoolers, where we see the most bullying occur.[142] To help decrease cyberbullying, people need to take preventative measures. One preventative method was implemented to determine the effectiveness against cyberbullying. This program called "Media Heroes" showed how educating teachers on bullying behaviors in school can help them educate and stop students from bullying. This educational program decreased bullying in their schools. Having trusted adults become educated on what can go on online, can help prevent further cyberbullying.[143]
Responses
Bullying is typically ongoing and not isolated behaviour. Common responses are to try to ignore it, to confront the bullies, or to turn to an authority figure.
Ignoring it often does nothing to stop the bullying continuing, and it can become worse over time.[144]
It can be important to address bullying behaviour early on, as it can be easier to control the earlier it is detected.[145]
Bystanders play an important role in responding to bullying, as doing nothing can encourage it to continue, while small steps that oppose the behaviour can reduce it.[146]
Authority figures can play an important role, such as parents or teachers in child or adolescent situations, or supervisors, human-resources staff or parent-bodies in workplace and volunteer settings. In the school context, teachers who set clear boundaries, communicate seriously that bullying behavior is unacceptable and will not be tolerated, and involve school administrators have been shown to reduce bullying.[117] Discussing bullying and its consequences with the whole class is also an important intervention that not only reduces bullying, but also encourages other students to step in and stop bullying even before it reaches its full form.[117] In general, authority figures can be influential in recognising and stopping bullying behaviour, and creating an environment that does not encourage or promote bullying.[147][148]
In many situations, authority figures are untrained and unqualified, do not know how to respond, and can make the situation worse.[149]
In some cases the authority figures even support the people doing the bullying, facilitating it continuing and increasing the isolation and marginalising of the target.[150]
Some of the most effective ways to respond are to recognise that harmful behaviour is taking place, and to create an environment where it will not continue.[151]