Conducting
Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as an orchestral or choral concert. It has been defined as "the art of directing the simultaneous performance of several players or singers by the use of gesture."[1] The primary duties of the conductor are to interpret the score in a way that reflects the specific indications in that score, set the tempo, ensure correct entries by ensemble members, and "shape" the phrasing where appropriate.[2] Conductors communicate with their musicians primarily through hand gestures, usually with the aid of a baton, and may use other gestures or signals such as facial expression and eye contact.[3] A conductor usually supplements their direction with verbal instructions to their musicians in rehearsal.[3]
The conductor typically stands on a raised podium with a large music stand for the full score, which contains the musical notation for all the instruments or voices. Since the mid-19th century, most conductors have not played an instrument when conducting, although in earlier periods of classical music history, leading an ensemble while playing an instrument was common. In Baroque music, the group would typically be led by the harpsichordist or first violinist (concertmaster), an approach that in modern times has been revived by several music directors for music from this period. Conducting while playing a piano or synthesizer may also be done with musical theatre pit orchestras. Communication is typically mostly non-verbal during a performance. However, in rehearsals, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be played or sung.
Conductors act as guides to the orchestras or choirs they conduct. They choose the works to be performed and study their scores, to which they may make certain adjustments (such as in tempo, articulation, phrasing, repetitions of sections), work out their interpretation, and relay their vision to the performers. They may also attend to organizational matters, such as scheduling rehearsals,[4] planning a concert season, hearing auditions and selecting members, and promoting their ensemble in the media. Orchestras, choirs, concert bands, and other sizable musical ensembles, such as big bands are usually led by conductors.
Nomenclature[edit]
The principal conductor of an orchestra or opera company is referred to as a music director or chief conductor, or by the German words Kapellmeister or Dirigent (in the feminine, Dirigentin). Conductors of choirs or choruses are sometimes referred to as choral director, chorus master, or choirmaster, particularly for choirs associated with an orchestra. Conductors of concert bands, military bands, marching bands and other bands may hold the title of band director, bandmaster, or drum major. Respected senior conductors are sometimes referred to by the Italian word maestro (feminine, maestra), which translates as "master" or "teacher".[5]
History[edit]
Middle Ages to 18th century[edit]
An early form of conducting is cheironomy, the use of hand gestures to indicate melodic shape. This has been practiced at least as far back as the Middle Ages. In the Christian church, the person giving these symbols held a staff to signify his role, and it seems that as music became rhythmically more complex, the staff was moved up and down to indicate the beat, acting as an early form of baton. In the 17th century, other devices to indicate the passing of time came into use. Rolled sheets of paper, smaller sticks and unadorned hands are all shown in pictures from this period. The large staff was responsible for the death of Jean-Baptiste Lully, who injured his foot with one while conducting a Te Deum for King Louis XIV's recovery from illness. The wound became gangrenous, and Lully refused amputation, whereupon the gangrene spread to his leg, and he died two months later.[6]
In instrumental music throughout the 18th century, a member of the ensemble usually acted as the conductor. This was sometimes the concertmaster, who could use his bow as a baton, or a lutenist who would move the neck of his instrument in time with the beat. It was common to conduct from the harpsichord in pieces that had a basso continuo part. In opera performances, there were sometimes two conductors, with the keyboard player in charge of the singers while the principal violinist or leader was in charge of the orchestra.
On 30 September 1791 in Vienna, Mozart's opera Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute) premiered at the Theater auf der Wieden, with Mozart conducting the orchestra, according to documents and publicity posters from that time.[7] In 1798, Joseph Haydn conducted the premiere of Creation with his hands and a baton while "Kapellmeister Weigl [sat] at the fortepiano."[8]
Injury prevention[edit]
The Alexander Technique is a popular alternative therapy based on the notion that poor posture encourages health problems.[19][20] The Alexander Technique is meant to help performers and musicians identify and release tension in the body.[21] Conductors are often trained with similar techniques, focusing on maintaining relaxation and balance in the upper body, as forcing movements can lead to jarred nerves, muscles, and joints. Many conductors forcefully throw their right arm when conducting beats, which can lead to back pain and neck tension, and especially puts the conductor at risk for rotator cuff injury from repetitive motion.
A review of evidence provided by the UK National Health Service suggests the Alexander Technique aids pain-relief: "long-term back pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced back pain-associated disability and reduce how often you feel pain for up to a year or more; long-term neck pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced neck pain and associated disability for up to a year or more."[22] Cultivating wholistic body awareness will allow conductors to maintain longevity in their careers with minimal pain and injuries.