Copy editing
Copy editing (also known as copyediting and manuscript editing) is the process of revising written material ("copy") to improve quality and readability, as well as ensuring that a text is free of errors in grammar, style and accuracy.[2][3] The Chicago Manual of Style states that manuscript editing encompasses "simple mechanical corrections (mechanical editing) through sentence-level interventions (line, or stylistic, editing) to substantial remedial work on literary style and clarity, disorganized passages, baggy prose, muddled tables and figures, and the like (substantive editing)". In the context of print publication, copy editing is done before typesetting and again before proofreading.[4]: 1–5 [2] Outside traditional book and journal publishing, the term "copy editing" is used more broadly, and is sometimes referred to as proofreading; the term sometimes encompasses additional tasks.
For information about copy editing on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Basic copyediting.
Although copy editors are generally expected to make simple revisions to smooth awkward passages, they do not have a license to rewrite a text line by line, nor do they prepare material on an author's behalf. (Creating original content to be published under another person's name is called "ghostwriting".) Furthermore, copy editors are expected to query structural and organizational problems, but they are not expected to fix these problems. In addition, copy editors do not normally engage in "developmental editing", which includes helping an author develop an idea into a publishable manuscript, overhauling a rough draft, identifying gaps in subject coverage, devising strategies for more-effective communication of content, and creating features to enhance the final product and make it more competitive in the marketplace.[5]
In the United States and Canada, an editor who does this work is called a copy editor. An organization's highest-ranking copy editor, or the supervising editor of a group of copy editors, may be known as the "copy chief", "copy desk chief", or "news editor". In the United Kingdom, the term "copy editor" is used, but in newspaper and magazine publishing, the term is subeditor (or "sub-editor"), commonly shortened to "sub".[6] In the context of the Internet, online copy refers to the textual content of web pages. Similar to print, online copy editing is the process of revising and preparing the raw or draft text of web pages for publication.[7]
Copy editing has three levels: light, medium, and heavy. Depending on the budget and scheduling of the publication, the publisher will let the copy editor know what level of editing to employ. The chosen type of editing will help the copy editor prioritize their efforts.[4]: 12
Goals[edit]
A copy editor's goals may change, depending on the publication for which they work; however, there are a few constituencies that must always be served – the author (the person who wrote or compiled the manuscript), the publisher (the person or company that pays for production), and the readers (the audience for whom the material is being produced). These parties (together with the copy editor) work to achieve the same goal, namely, to produce an error-free publication and improve the reader experience by reducing extraneous cognitive load.[11] The copy editor strives to improve clarity, coherence, consistency, and correctness – otherwise known as the "4 Cs", each of which serves the copy editor's "cardinal C", which is communication.[4]: 3
History[edit]
The biggest difference between monastic copyists and copy editors is that copy editors leave edits as suggestions that can be rejected by the writer. These printing houses established procedures for editing, preparing the text, and proofreading the first typeset galley proofs. Specialist correctors ensured that texts followed the standards of the time.[12]
Before the printing press, monastic copyists altered words or phrases they thought were odd, under the assumption that the copyist before them had made a mistake. This is what led to so much variety in standard texts like the Bible.
After the globalization of the book from 1800 to 1970 came the rise of American writers and editors. One editor in particular, Maxwell Perkins, was sought out by writers such as Fitzgerald, Hemingway, and Wolfe because he greatly improved the work of these prominent authors with his editorial eye. Perkins was known for editing, guiding, and befriending his writers – but the times were changing.[13]
In the late 19th century, the role of an editor was to decide if a manuscript was good enough to be published. As time passed, the role of an editor and publisher became more distant. Although there was a newfound relationship between editors and authors, thoughtful editing did not end.[13]
Copy editors were employed at various publishing houses, magazines, journals, and by private authors seeking revisions to their work. Some copy editors were even employed by public relations and advertising firms who valued strong editing practices in their business.[14]
The symbols used by copy editors today are based on those that have been used by proofreaders since the beginnings of publishing, though they have undergone some changes over time. However, the exact beginnings of the copyediting language used today are unclear. Despite its long history, copyediting as a practice has not experienced any extreme upheaval other than the desktop publishing revolution of the 1980s. This phenomenon began as the result of a series of inventions that were released during the middle of this decade, and refers to the growth of technology usage in the field of copyediting.[15][16] Namely, the development of the Xerox Star computer, with its Viewpoint desktop environment and the Xerox multilingual character code (the precursor of Unicode); as well as others, such as the Macintosh computer, the desktop laser printer by Hewlett-Packard, and software for desktop publishing called PageMaker allowed the revolution to begin.[15][17] By allowing both individuals and publishing agencies alike to cheaply and effectively begin to edit compositions entirely on-screen rather than by hand, desktop publishing revolution morphed copyediting into the practice it is today. Most copy editors today rely on more modern WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) text processors such as Microsoft Word that are based on the original PageMaker to do their work.
There were a few events that led to changes within copyediting as a career. One of these, the successful strike of the editorial department of the Newark Ledger from November 17, 1934, to March 28, 1935, was "the first major action of its kind by any local guild ... [it] both confirmed the irreversibility of the guilds' movement away from the professional association idea and greatly accelerated that process".[18] Paired with another string of strikes led by The New York Newspaper Guild against a number of smaller newspapers in the summer of 1934, these actions served to shift the image of the editorial worker as a "professional" to one as an average citizen.[18] Another strike from the year 1934 was the strike at the Macaulay Company, reportedly the first-ever strike to occur at a publishing firm. At the conclusion of the second Macaulay strike, which occurred three months after the first, the nationwide drive towards unionization had entered the publishing industry and was "sweeping through all the major publishing houses".[19] As these events seemed to have the secondary result of lowering the status of editors across the various publishing fields, it could be said that they sparked the decline of copy editors, which can be seen across the publishing fields today.
Owing to the rise of the Digital Age, the roles and responsibilities of a copy editor have changed. For instance, beginning in 1990, copy editors learned pagination electronically.[20] They could now look at multiple pages of a text on multiple screens and easily make their edits in that environment, as opposed to pasting physical paper cut-outs onto a board by hand. This technological advance also required that copy editors learn new software such as Adobe Indesign, Quark Express, Affinity Publisher or Scribus.
Modern copy editors are often required to edit for digital as well as print versions of the text. Digital copyediting requires copy editors to understand RSS feeds, social media (such as Twitter and Facebook), and HTML.[20] What should be accounted for is that, in this digital age, information is constantly being released, which has led to a decline in the editing of the online versions. Editors of the website BuzzFeed commented that sometimes they "simply can't get [to] every post before it's published".[21]
While copy editors still do traditional tasks such as checking facts, grammar, style, and writing headlines, some of their duties have been pushed aside to make way for technology. Some copy editors now have to design page layouts and some even edit video content. Copy editors are now sometimes referred to as "copy/layout editors" or "producers/designers".[22]
Traits, skills, and training[edit]
Besides an outstanding command of the language, copy editors need broad general knowledge for spotting factual errors; good critical thinking skills in order to recognize inconsistencies or vagueness; interpersonal skills for dealing with writers, other editors, and designers; attention to detail; and a sense of style. They must also set priorities and balance a desire for perfection with the need to meet deadlines.
Many copy editors have a college degree, often in journalism, communications, or the language of the writing that they edit. Additionally, some copy editors take it upon themselves to gain a background in topics that would further help their career. For instance, some copy editors may seek knowledge and background in statistics to help catch mistakes related to data within an article to help authors have a better chance at getting published.[26] Statistics are an aspect of copy editing that may be helpful to understanding a broader range of topics. Understanding how to read and interpret data allows copy editors to more accurately help authors which allows them to have a greater chance of publishing their work.[26] According to Marisha Fonseca, who wrote a study on the correlation between understanding statistics in copy-editing, there are many articles that contain statistical flaws. Although a background in statistics is not necessary to become a copy-editor, the training and background in understanding quantitative data can allow copy editors to further prevent inaccuracies in data related works.
In the United States, copy editing is often taught as a college journalism course, though its name varies. The courses often include news design and pagination.
In the United States, The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund sponsors internships that include two weeks of training. Also, the American Press Institute, the Poynter Institute, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, UC San Diego Extension, and conferences of the American Copy Editors Society offer mid-career training for newspaper copy editors and news editors (news copy desk supervisors).
Most US newspapers and publishers give copy-editing job candidates an editing test or a tryout. These vary widely and can include general items such as acronyms, current events, math, punctuation, and skills such as the use of Associated Press style, headline writing, infographics editing, and journalism ethics.
Copy editors can also be trained in other software programs to ensure accuracy within a writer's work. Whether using programs like illustrator, publisher, or photoshop, copy editors can obtain skills in using different types of software to help catch further errors that may be present in a writer's work. Due to new developments in technology and its various uses, the training and skills that would help a copy editor are expected to change in the future.[27]
Effects of the Internet[edit]
According to a 2011 publication by Angela Anne Avery-Ahlijian, as online resources rise in popularity, copy editors endeavor to meet the increase of digital consumerism to the best of their abilities, and such high competition has resulted in a gradual "declining of quality in editing", such as copy editing or fact-checking.[20] However, this does not mean that the Internet has limited the scope of a copy editor's responsibilities or job opportunities. One of the most important advancements of the digital age is the advent of pagination, which gives copy editors more control over the construction and revisions of their content, and is a convenient feature in modern software. Despite the increasing number of programs, however, some copy editors believe their basic functions and duties have not changed much. Other copy editors think that the Internet has simplified fact-checking and that websites such as Facebook or Twitter have aided information-gathering. Other digital skills, such as image selection and search engine optimization, increase the visibility of search results, especially when searching for keywords in headlines.
According to Avery-Ahlijian, in all likelihood, the Internet will continue to evolve, but this should not hamper the overall importance of copy editing. Although it may be tempting to neglect proper revisions in favor of convenience, the credibility and quality of an editor's work should still be maintained, as there will always be updates in software and technology.[20] As formats evolve, so too will the opportunities for journalists and other writers.