Council–manager government
The council–manager government is a form of local government used for municipalities, counties, or other equivalent regions, commonly used in the United States and the Republic of Ireland.[1] The council–manager form is also used in New Zealand for regional councils, and in Canada and many other countries for city and county councils.[2][3]
The city manager–council form is much like a publicly traded corporation.[4] Under the form, an elected governing body, usually called a city council, board of aldermen, or similar title, is responsible for legislative functions such as establishing policy, passing local ordinances, voting appropriations, and developing an overall vision, similar to a corporate board of directors.[5] The council or commission appoints a city manager to oversee the administrative operations, implement its policies, and advise it. The manager position is similar to that of a corporate chief executive officer appointed by a board of directors. The position of "mayor" present in this type of legislative body is a largely ceremonial title, and may be selected by the council from among its members or elected as an at-large council member with no executive functions,[6] similar to a non-executive chairperson in a corporation.
The International City/County Management Association (ICMA), a professional organization for city managers, has listed at least three defining characteristics that distinguish a true council–manager government:
This system of government is used in 40.1% of American cities with populations of 2,500 or more, according to the 2011 Municipal Yearbook published by ICMA.[9]
History in the United States[edit]
The concept of the council–manager form of government was a product of a confluence of the prevailing modes of thought during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[10] Probably the foremost influence was the Progressive Movement; following along the thought lines of the movement, the municipal reformers of that time wanted to rid municipalities of the pervasive "political machine" form of government and the abuses of the spoils system. The thought was to have a politically impartial administrator or manager to carry out the administrative function.
Staunton, Virginia, is credited as the first American city to appoint a city manager, which it did in 1908.[11] This appointment attracted attention to the fledgling profession and caught the eye of Richard S. Childs, who would become known as the "father" of the council–manager form of government.[10][12] The first large city to adopt the council–manager form was Dayton, Ohio, in 1913. Ohio Progressives organizing for the city manager plan also prioritized Proportional representation and Single transferable vote, with adoptions in Ashtabula, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Hamilton, and Toledo.[13]
The council–manager form of government developed, at least in part, as a response to some perceived limitations of the city commission government form. Since it relies on candidates being elected at-large, minority populations are often unable to elect candidates of their choice. In addition, it may concentrate too much power in individual commissioners, who also manage city departments. The council–manager form became the preferred alternative for progressive reform. After World War I, few cities adopted the commission form and many cities using the commission plan switched to the council–manager form.
By 2001, 3,302 cities with a population over 2,500 and 371 counties used the council–manager system. Phoenix, Arizona, is the largest city in the United States to retain a council–manager government.[14]
Since the turn of the 21st century, there have been studies about hybrid forms of local governments that take elements of both council–manager and mayor–council forms. The cities that have modified their organizational structure from one of the pure forms have been called "adaptive" forms.[15]