Doge of Venice
The Doge of Venice (/doʊdʒ/ DOHJ)[2][a] was the highest role of authority within the Republic of Venice (697 CE to 1797 CE).[3] The word Doge derives from the Latin Dux, meaning "leader," originally referring to any military leader, becoming in the Late Roman Empire the title for a leader of an expeditionary force formed by detachments (vexillationes) from the frontier army (limitanei), separate from, but subject to, the governor of a province, authorized to conduct operations beyond provincial boundaries.
For a list, see List of Doges of Venice.Doge of Venice
- 697 (traditional)
- 726 (historical)
- Paolo Lucio Anafesto (traditional)
- Orso Ipato (historical)
12 May 1797
The Doge of Venice acted as both the head of state and head of the Venetian oligarchy. Doges were elected for life through a complex voting process.[4]
History[edit]
Byzantine Era[edit]
The first Doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was elected in A.D. 697 and served until A.D. 717.[5] Anafesto was not a typical Venetian Doge, as he was a subject of Byzantium.[5] While he is considered to be the first Doge of Venice, Venetians were not truly free from the Byzantine Empire until 742 CE.
While it is not known for certain, historians widely accept that Anafesto was born in Oderzo, a city in modern-day Veneto.[5] Historians are unsure of how and where Anafesto died. According to some, he was the victim of a conspiracy hatched by the nobles of Malamocco in 717 CE.[5] Others suggest that he died in the ducal residence of Eraclea.[5] Another theory suggests he died in battle in 728 CE, after being promoted exarch of Ravenna.[5]
Not much is known about the second Doge of Venice, Marcello Tegalliano, who ruled from 717 CE - 726 CE.[5] At the time of his appointment, the Duchy was in turmoil as a result of growing tensions between pro-Lombard bishop of Aquileia and the pro-Byzantine leaders of Grado.[5]
In the latter half of the eighth century, Mauritius Galba was elected duke and took the title magister militum, consul et imperialis dux Veneciarum provinciae, 'master of the soldiers, consul and imperial duke of the province of the Venetias'.[6] Doge Justinian Partecipacius (d. 829) used the title imperialis hypatus et humilis dux Venetiae, 'imperial hypatos and humble duke of Venice'.[7]
These early titles combined Byzantine honorifics and explicit reference to Venice's subordinate status.[8] Titles like hypatos, spatharios, protospatharios, protosebastos and protoproedros were granted by the emperor to the recipient for life but were not inherent in the office (ἀξία διὰ βραβείου, axia dia brabeiou), but the title doux belonged to the office (ἀξία διὰ λόγου, axia dia logou). Thus, into the eleventh century the Venetian doges held titles typical of Byzantine rulers in outlying regions, such as Sardinia.[9] As late as 1202, the Doge Enrico Dandolo was styled protosebastos, a title granted to him by Alexios III Angelos.[10]
As Byzantine power declined in the region in the late ninth century, reference to Venice as a province disappeared in the titulature of the doges. The simple titles dux Veneticorum (duke of the Venetians) and dux Venetiarum (duke of the Venetias) predominate in the tenth century.[11] The plural reflects the doge's rule of several federated townships and clans.[12]
Dukes of Dalmatia and Croatia[edit]
After defeating Croatia and conquering some Dalmatian territory in 1000, Doge Pietro II Orseolo adopted the title dux Dalmatiae, 'Duke of Dalmatia',[13] or in its fuller form, Veneticorum atque Dalmaticorum dux, 'Duke of the Venetians and Dalmatians'.[14]
This title was recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II in 1002.[15] After a Venetian request, it was confirmed by the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1082. In a chrysobull dated that year, Alexios granted the Venetian doge the imperial title of protosebastos, and recognised him as imperial doux over the Dalmatian theme.[16]
The expression Dei gratia ('by the grace of God') was adopted consistently by the Venetian chancery only in the course of the eleventh century.[17] An early example, however, can be found in 827–29, during the joint reign of Justinian and his brother John I: per divinam gratiam Veneticorum provinciae duces, 'by divine grace dukes of the Venetian provinces'.[12]
Between 1091 and 1102, the King of Hungary acquired the Croatian kingdom in a personal union. In these circumstances, the Venetians appealed to the Byzantine emperor for recognition of their title to Croatia (like Dalmatia, a former Byzantine subject). Perhaps as early as the reign of Vital Falier (d. 1095), and certainly by that of Vital Michiel (d. 1102), the title dux Croatiae had been added, giving the full dogal title four parts: dux Venetiae atque Dalmatiae sive Chroaciae et imperialis prothosevastos, 'Duke of Venice, Dalmatia and Croatia and Imperial Protosebastos'.[16] In the fourteenth century, the doges periodically objected to the use of Dalmatia and Croatia in the Hungarian king's titulature, regardless of their own territorial rights or claims.[18] Later medieval chronicles mistakenly attributed the acquisition of the Croatian title to Doge Ordelaf Falier (d. 1117).[19]
According to the Venetiarum Historia, written around 1350, Doge Domenico Morosini added atque Ystrie dominator ('and lord of Istria') to his title after forcing Pula on Istria to submit in 1150. Only one charter, however, actually uses a title similar to this: et totius Ystrie inclito dominatori (1153).[20]
Post-1204[edit]
The next major change in the dogal title came with the Fourth Crusade, which conquered the Byzantine Empire (1204). The Byzantine honorific protosebastos had by this time been dropped and was replaced by a reference to Venice's allotment in the partitioning of the Byzantine Empire. The new full title was 'By the grace of God duke of the Venices, Dalmatia and Croatia and lord of a fourth part and a half [three eighths] of the whole Empire of Romania' (Dei gratia dux Venecie [or Venetiarum] Dalmatiae atque Chroatiae, dominus [or dominator] quartae partis et dimidie totius imperii Romaniae).[21]
Although traditionally ascribed by later medieval chroniclers to Doge Enrico Dandolo, who led the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade, and hence known as the arma Dandola,[22] in reality the title of 'lord of a fourth part and a half of the Empire of Romania' was first claimed by the ambitious Venetian podestà of Constantinople, Marino Zeno, in his capacity as the Doge's representative in the 'Empire of Romania', and it was only subsequently adopted as part of the dogal title by Doge Pietro Ziani.[23]
The Greek chronicler George Akropolites used the term despotes to translate dominus, 'lord', which has led to some confusion with the Byzantine court title of despot. The latter title was never claimed by the doges, but was sometimes used by the Venetian podestàs of Constantinople in their capacity as the doge's representatives.[24]
The title of 'lord of a fourth part and a half of the whole Empire of Romania' was used in official titulature thereafter, with the exception, after the re-establishment in 1261 of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty, of Venice's relations with the Byzantine emperors, when that part of the dogal titulature was substituted by 'and lord of the lands and islands subject to his dogate' (dominus terrarum et insularum suo ducatui subiectarum) or similar formulations.[25]
In a similar manner, the disputes between Venice and Hungary over Dalmatia and Croatia led to the Kings of Hungary addressing the Doges of Venice without that part of their title, while in turn the Venetians tried to force the Hungarian kings to drop any title laying claim to the two provinces.[26]
This dispute ended in the Treaty of Zadar of 1358, where Venice renounced its claims to Dalmatia; a special article in the treaty removed Dalmatia and Croatia from the doge's title. The resulting title was Dux Veneciarum et cetera, 'Duke of the Venices and the rest'.[27] Even though Dalmatia would be regained by Venice in the early 15th century, the title was never modified, and remained in use until the end of the Republic.[28] Even when the body of such documents was written in Italian, the title and dating clause were in Latin.[29]
Regalia[edit]
From the 14th century onward, the ceremonial crown and well-known symbol of the doge of Venice was called corno ducale, a unique ducal hat. It was a stiff horn-like bonnet, which was made of gemmed brocade or cloth-of-gold and worn over the camauro. This was a fine linen cap with a structured peak reminiscent of the Phrygian cap, a classical symbol of liberty. This ceremonial cap may have been ultimately based on the white crown of Upper Egypt.[33] Every Easter Monday the doge headed a procession from San Marco to the convent of San Zaccaria, where the abbess presented him a new camauro crafted by the nuns.
The Doge's official costume also included golden robes, slippers and a sceptre for ceremonial duties.
Decline of the office[edit]
As the oligarchical element in the constitution developed, the more important functions of the ducal office were assigned to other officials, or to administrative boards. The doge's role became a mostly representative position. The last doge was Ludovico Manin, who abdicated in 1797, when Venice passed under the power of Napoleon's France following his conquest of the city.[30]
While Venice would shortly declare itself again as a republic, attempting to resist annexation by Austria, it would never revive the title of doge. It used various titles, including dictator, and collective heads of state to govern the jurisdiction, including a triumvirate.