Double V campaign
The Double V campaign, initiated by the Pittsburgh Courier from February 1942, was a drive to promote the fight for democracy in overseas campaigns and at the home front in the United States for African Americans during World War II. The idea of the Double V originated from a letter written by James G. Thompson on January 31, 1942. In the letter, Thompson refers to the "V for victory" sign prominently displayed by countries fighting "for victory over aggression, slavery, and tyranny," but proposes the adoption of a second 'V' for African Americans fighting for freedom overseas and at home, "the first V for victory over our enemies from without, the second V for victory over our enemies from within."[1] Pitched as "Democracy – Double Victory, At Home – Abroad," the campaign highlighted the risks Black soldiers and civilians took while participating in America's struggle against the Axis powers while being denied their rights as full American citizens back home.[2]
"Double V" redirects here. For other uses, see VV.Response to African Americans Involvement in World War II[edit]
Response in the United States[edit]
African American soldiers fighting abroad in the Second World War were subject to segregation within the U.S. armed forces, despite fighting on land that did not hold the same racist ideology as that which they experienced at home and during their service.[7] Despite this discrimination still prevalent within the US, some concessions were made domestically in regard to the war effort. In particular through President Roosevelt's issuing of Executive Order 8802 that banned employment discrimination in defence industries and civilian agencies of the federal government on grounds of race, creed or colour. From 1942 to 1943, due to the government's concern over racism in Europe while ignoring the problem of racism in America, riots broke out in Los Angeles, Beaumont, Detroit and Harlem. This reflected the frustration African Americans felt over Black soldiers enlisting or being drafted only to return and be treated as less than citizens.[3] It was not until July 28, 1948, when President Harry S. Truman put forth Executive Order 9981, that the U.S. armed forces were racially integrated.[8]
Results of the Campaign[edit]
Double V's Advancements[edit]
The Double V Campaign had limited success. While it promoted patriotism and support for the war effort among African Americans, especially as the Allies won the war, it fostered a narrow appreciation for the complexity of African American wartime situations, and it did not address or impact the underlying structure of America's systems of institutional racism.[17] The campaign was also not a unifying force as many White, Southern newspapers and journalists criticized the slogan and characterized it as a dangerous revolution. The government tried to get the Black press to cease its agitation in an effort for greater rights.[18] Among African Americans, the Double V campaign had a 91% approval rating and was supported by various institutions and organizations, such as North Carolina A&T State University and United Automobile Workers. Support for the campaign was bolstered by wartime events such as the Port Chicago disaster and the Agana race riot, which underscored the disparities Black soldiers faced. The campaign also played a role at home in encouraging defense industries to hire African American employees who left the South in large numbers for the urban North and West Coast during the Second Great Migration to help the nation's war effort.[19] The 'Double V Campaign' did however aid in reshaping attitudes within the armed forces regarding race, helping to legitimise the role African Americans played in the US war effort in the eyes of society at large. This came in the form of a report ("Attitudes of the Negro Soldier") issued by the Research Branch of the Special Service Division of the US armed forces, which made the suggestions that important military duties should be assigned to black soldiers while news of military achievements performed by black soldiers should receive greater coverage and recognition, all done in an effort to convey to US citizens the crucial role played by African Americans in winning the war [20]
Results of the Press[edit]
The press had a vital role in creating and spreading the idea of Double V in an effort to get more readers and Black men to enroll in the Army and support the war effort, as it was not a "white man's war." If Black people did not support the war effort and help America win, it could be problematic to win equality back home.[21] It was difficult to emphasize the importance of African American involvement in the war at a time when discrimination was apparent both in conscription and the wartime labor force. In addition, it was also a response to Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had encouraged five editors of the top Black newspapers in the United States to reduce the discontent and apathy of their readers toward the war.[22]
The End of the Double V Campaign[edit]
The campaign died down by 1943, in part due to threats of possible legal action, pressure from the Roosevelt administration and government agencies, as well as the war intensifying, leading to more emphasis in the press being placed on fighting the war overseas than at home.[23] The Pittsburgh Courier only mentioned the successes of the campaign from that point on. However, it is still considered to be a turning point within African American history which led to unity among the Black population in regard to achieving this double victory in the long run.[18] The slogan and wartime protests marked a key development within Black protest movements and aided in laying the groundwork for the future Civil Rights Movement.[12] Demands for change did not stop, as the NAACP still was calling for the end of segregation in the army and navy in 1944. Nonetheless, the campaign had not fully achieved its goal, as discrimination was still legal in America after the war, despite the efforts of African American soldiers.[24] In this regard, the White House also failed to respond to progressive change within the African American population. However, the Double V Campaign helped lay the foundations for the later achievements and concessions made by the Civil rights movement as many of those Democrats elected to Congress between 1948 and 1958 were influenced by the increased wartime racial progressivism and so were instrumental in challenging the Conservative coalition's dominance in Congress, thus providing the necessary conditions in which the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were able to be passed.[25]