Football hooliganism
Football hooliganism, also known as soccer hooliganism,[1] football rioting or soccer rioting, constitutes violence and other destructive behaviors perpetrated by spectators at association football events.[1] Football hooliganism typically involves conflict between pseudo-tribes, formed to intimidate and attack supporters of other teams.[2] Certain clubs have long-standing rivalries with other clubs and hooliganism associated with matches between them (sometimes called local derbies) can be more severe. An example of this is the Devon Derby (Exeter City vs Plymouth Argyle). Conflict may arise at any point, before, during or after matches and occasionally outside of game situations.[3] Participants often select locations away from stadiums to avoid arrest by the police, but conflict can also erupt spontaneously inside the stadium or in the surrounding streets. In extreme cases, hooligans, police and bystanders have been killed, and riot police have intervened.[4] Hooligan-led violence has been called "aggro" (short for "aggression") and "bovver" (the Cockney pronunciation of "bother", i.e. trouble).
Not to be confused with Ultras.Hooligans who have the time and money may follow national teams to away matches and engage in hooligan behaviour against the hooligans of the home team. They may also become involved in disorder involving the general public. While national-level firms do not exist in the form of club-level firms, hooligans supporting the national team may use a collective name indicating their allegiance.
Early history[edit]
The first recorded instances of football hooliganism in the modern game allegedly occurred during the 1880s in England, a period when gangs of supporters would intimidate neighbourhoods, in addition to attacking referees, opposing supporters and players. In 1885, after Preston North End beat Aston Villa 5–0 in a friendly match, both teams were pelted with stones, attacked with sticks, punched, kicked and spat at. One Preston player was beaten so severely that he lost consciousness and press reports at the time described the fans as "howling roughs".[12] The following year, Preston fans fought Queen's Park fans in a railway station—the first alleged instance of football hooliganism outside of a match. In 1905, a number of Preston fans were tried for hooliganism, including a "drunk and disorderly" 70-year-old woman, following their match against Blackburn Rovers.
Although instances of football crowd violence and disorder have been a feature of association football throughout its history [13](e.g. Millwall's ground was reportedly closed in 1920, 1934 and 1950 after crowd disturbances), the phenomenon only started to gain the media's attention in the late 1950s due to the re-emergence of violence in Latin American football. In the 1955–56 English football season, Liverpool and Everton fans were involved in a number of incidents and, by the 1960s, an average of 25 hooligan incidents were being reported each year in England. The label "football hooliganism" first began to appear in the English media in the mid-1960s,[14] leading to increased media interest in, and reporting of, acts of disorder. It has been argued that this, in turn, created a 'moral panic' out of proportion with the scale of the actual problem.[15]
Effects[edit]
Anti-hooligan measures[edit]
The violence perpetrated by hooligans is somewhat of a dying phenomena although experiencing some surges around 2015. The mid-1900s was when hooliganism was at its highest rate,[24] however, police and clubs themselves have taken strides to prevent the level of hooliganism, and today, violence at games has decreased significantly not only in the amount that's taking place, but in the level of the conflict as well.[11]
One example of anti-hooligan measures are some of the new rules that stadiums have put in place regarding alcohol. Some stadiums do not allow fans to bring their alcoholic drinks up to their seats; they are only permitted to the lower levels near the concessions. In addition, bottles are typically plastic, as to avoid the threat of fans hurling them at other fans or even players. In some cases, specifically in major tournaments, more extreme measures have to be put in place to help reduce the chances of violence. For example, at the 2016 Euros, officials recommended a complete ban on alcohol. In the event that violence results in riots that go out of control, police utilize tools like tear gas and water cannons in an attempt on crowd control. This can sometimes lead to increased violence from the hooligans.
North America[edit]
Canada[edit]
Toronto FC formally banned supporter firm Inebratti for hooliganism at a match between TFC and Ottawa Fury FC on July 18, 2018.[206]
On May 10, 2023, during a Canadian Championship semi-final against rivals CF Montreal, Toronto FC fans traveled to the away end where a brawl begun between the two sets of fans. Members of both groups were escorted out and away fans were banned from the next league derby.[207]
El Salvador and Honduras[edit]
The Football War (Spanish: La guerra del fútbol), also known as the Soccer War or 100 Hour War, was a brief war fought by El Salvador and Honduras in 1969. It was caused by political conflicts between Hondurans and Salvadorans, namely issues concerning immigration from El Salvador to Honduras. These existing tensions between the two countries coincided with the inflamed rioting during the second North American qualifying round of the 1970 FIFA World Cup. Honduras and El Salvador met in the second North American qualifying round for the 1970 FIFA World Cup. There was fighting between fans at the first game in the Honduran capital of Tegucigalpa on 8 June 1969, which Honduras won 1–0. The second game, on 15 June 1969 in the Salvadoran capital of San Salvador, which was won 3–0 by El Salvador, was followed by even greater violence.[208] A play-off match took place in Mexico City on 26 June 1969. El Salvador won 3–2 after extra time.
The war began on 14 July 1969, when the El Salvadoran military launched an attack against Honduras. The Organization of American States negotiated a cease-fire on the night of 18 July (hence "100 Hour War"), which took full effect on 20 July. El Salvadoran troops were withdrawn in early August. El Salvador dissolved all ties with Honduras, stating that "the government of Honduras has not taken any effective measures to punish these crimes which constitute genocide, nor has it given assurances of indemnification or reparations for the damages caused to Salvadorans".[209] This led to border clashes between the two nations.
Mexico[edit]
Football hooliganism in Mexico appears to be low key, but there have been some incidents, such as small-scale fighting between fans of Monterrey and Morelia at a Primera División match in Monterrey in 2003.[210] In June 1998, one man died and several people were injured when Mexico football fans rioted after Mexico lost to Germany in the World Cup.[211] After the match, hundreds of riot police were brought in to restore order because fans were looting and rioting. Fans then clashed with the police, and many fans were injured or arrested. In March 2014 dozens of Chivas supporters clashed with police during their derby with Atlas. Several police were hospitalized. As a result, Chivas banned all of their supporters for the Clasico against Club America.[212]
At the 2015 Gold Cup, Mexican hooligans threw trash and drinks in separate games against Trinidad and Tobago[213] and Panama.[214]
On 5 March 2022, a riot broke out during a match between Querétaro F.C. and Atlas F.C.[215]
United States[edit]
While soccer is traditionally viewed in the United States as a family-friendly event, played by children and supported by parents, some violence does still occur.[216] On 20 July 2008, in a friendly match between Major League Soccer side Columbus Crew and English Premier League club West Ham United, in Columbus, Ohio, a fight broke out between rival fans. Police estimated more than 100 people were involved.[217] An unruly encounter occurred between Toronto FC fans in 2009, upset from a loss in the Trillium Cup, and Columbus Crew fans. One Toronto fan was tasered by Columbus police.
That same weekend, a riot was narrowly avoided at a packed Giants Stadium as members of the New York Red Bulls supporters club, Empire Supporters Club (ESC), and members of the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority security force clashed over what the ESC claimed was unfair and repeated mistreatment. Clashes also took place in the parking area around the stadium after the game, involving already ejected-for-life North Jersey Firm (NJF) members, and the New Jersey State Police were called to quell the situation.[218] There were several arrests, mostly of known NJF hooligans. A rare moment of violence broke out in Seattle in March 2010 after a pre-season Portland Timbers win in Seattle, when three Sounders fans attacked a Timbers fan, choking and dragging him with his team scarf.[219] On 21 April 2013 in Portland, a Portland Timbers supporter was assaulted by a group of San Jose Earthquakes supporters. While he was sitting in his car, he had taunted his scarf at a group of San Jose Supporters, one of which ran toward him and attacked him through his car window, breaking his car windshield and assaulting him.[220] San Jose's 1906 Ultras were subsequently banned by the club from traveling to away matches.[221] After much debate, the ban was lifted. On 10 August 2015, fans of New York Red Bulls and New York City FC clashed in a brawl outside a pub throwing trash and exchanging blows. On 23 May 2016, fans of both NYCFC rioted outside Yankee Stadium in response to NYC FC's 7–0 defeat to the New York Red Bulls.[222]
However, football (soccer) and other sports hooliganism overall is rare in the United States in part because of stricter legal penalties for vandalism and physical violence, club markets having their own territory of fans, venues banning weapons, and stricter security during games. Although isolated drunken fights at games do occur, they rarely escalate to major brawling comparable to Europe and Latin America.[223]
East Asia[edit]
China[edit]
Football hooliganism in China is often linked to accusations of corrupt refereeing, with Chinese football being plagued by allegations of match fixing in the early 2000s.[257][258] After a match in 2000 between Shaanxi National Power and Chengdu F.C. in Xi'an, football fans clashed with police who used tear gas and water cannons to disperse the crowd. Eight people were arrested but later released.[259] In March 2002 hundreds of football fans rioted at a match in Xi'an between Shaanxi National Power and Qingdao Etsong Hainiu, as a result of fans' suspicions of match-fixing.
Two years earlier, following crowd trouble at a match also in Xi'an, the government demanded more action to stamp out football hooliganism.[257]
In June 2002, riots in Fuzhou, Fujian had to be put down by heavily armed paramilitary police. The disorder started when fans were unable to watch the World Cup match between China and Brazil at an outside broadcast.[258] On 4 July 2004 fans rioted in Beijing when China lost 3–1 to Japan in the final of the AFC Asian Cup. Japanese flags were burned and a Japanese Embassy official's car vandalised. Japanese fans had to be protected by the police, and bussed to safety.[260][261] The rioting was attributed to ill-feeling toward Japan for atrocities committed before and during the Second World War.[260]
Japan[edit]
There was no hooliganism in Japan before the J.League was established in 1993, but since its inception, Urawa Red Diamonds, Kashima Antlers, Gamba Osaka, and other players have engaged in hooliganism.
In particular, the actions of the Urawa hooligans were called into question by posting a discriminatory banner reading "Japanese only" and prohibiting foreigners from entering the home side stand during a home game on March 8, 2014, leading to the first J.League game without spectators.
Urawa was not satisfied with this and continued to engage in hooliganism, and on August 2, 2023, during the Emperor's Cup match against Nagoya, they relentlessly chased Nagoya supporters, claiming they had been provoked after the match, damaging the Nagoya banner, and attacking security guards. More than 70 people were punished, including for assault, and their qualifications for next year's Emperor's Cup were revoked.[2]
South Asia[edit]
Bangladesh[edit]
Football hooliganism in Bangladesh does not appear to be a major problem. However, in August 2001, 100 people were injured when thousands of football fans rampaged at a B-League match between Mohammedan Sporting Club and Rahmatganj Sporting Club in the Bangabandhu National Stadium, Dhaka. When the referee disallowed a penalty, Mohammedan fans invaded the pitch, throwing stones at the police, who had to fire tear gas at the fans to try and restore order. Outside the stadium dozens of cars and buses were damaged and set on fire.[263]
Nepal[edit]
Nepali supporters at Dasarath Stadium occasionally tend to act violently during international matches. Cell phones and other objects were thrown during a match against Bangladesh, and coins were hurled at players at a match against Palestine.[265]
West Asia[edit]
Israel[edit]
In the 2000s, tensions surrounding the Arab–Israeli conflict spilled over into sporadic riots between Jewish and Arab Israeli football fans. In December 2000 it was reported that every club in Israel was on a final warning following escalating violence and intimidation at matches.
A number of incidents have involved Beitar Jerusalem, including racist abuse against overseas players,[294] anti-Arab chants, use of smoke bombs and fireworks, and rioting. Beitar has a hooligan firm, La Familia, whose members consider Israeli Arabs to be their enemy. In November 2007 the Israel Football Association (IFA) ordered Beitar to play their game against the Arab club, Bnei Sakhnin behind closed doors after Beitar fans, led by La Familia, broke a minute's silence for former Prime Minister of Israel, Yitzhak Rabin and sang chants in praise of his assassin, Yigal Amir. After a pitch invasion led by La Familia on 13 April 2008, when Beitar were leading Maccabi Herzliya, 1–0, and about to win the Israeli Premier League, the match was abandoned and the points were awarded to their opponents. Beitar was docked two points and had to play its remaining home games behind closed doors.
Jordan[edit]
Football riots in Jordan are generally regarded as an expression of tension between the country's Palestinian ethnic group and those who regard themselves as ethnically Jordanian, the two groups being of roughly equal size.[295]
In December 2010, rioting broke out following a game between rival Amman clubs Al-Wehdat and Al-Faisaly clubs. Some Al-Faisali fans threw bottles at Al-Wehdat players and their fans. About 250 people were injured, 243 of them Al-Wehdat fans, according to senior officials from the hospitals.[295] According to Al Jazeera, supporters of Al-Wehdat are generally of Palestinian origin, while Faisaly fans are of Jordanian origin. A similar riot occurred in 2009.[295]
Africa[edit]
Democratic Republic of the Congo[edit]
Four died when troops opened fire at a derby match between AS Vita Club and DC Motema Pembe at the Stade des Martyrs in Kinshasa in November 1998.[298] In April 2001, 14 people died following a stampede at a derby match between TP Mazembe and FC Saint Eloi Lupopo. When fans invaded the pitch after Mazembe had equalised, and rival fans started throwing missiles at each other, the police fired tear gas, and fans rushed to escape the effects of the tear gas. In the resulting stampede, 14 people died. Fans of the two clubs are alleged to have a history of hatred and violence towards each other.[299]
Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
The incident with the most notoriety in Australia is the Pratten Park riot in 1985 where hundreds of fans stormed the pitch midway through a Sydney Olympic v Sydney City match. In a match between Melbourne Heart and Melbourne Victory in February 2013, 17 plastic seats were destroyed and flares were fired.[320] In a match between Sydney FC and Melbourne Victory in November 2013, one travelling Melbourne Victory fan was hospitalised with a stab wound by a sixteen-year-old civilian.[321] In December 2013, a riot between Melbourne Victory and Western Sydney Wanderers broke out at a pub before the match later that day.
At an international football friendly between Australia and Serbia in Melbourne in June 2011, fans lit flares both inside and outside the stadium, and in city streets. Banners supporting Ratko Mladić, the Serbian military leader charged with war crimes by the International Court of Justice, were displayed, and a laser pointer was seen in use.[322][323] In February 2011, Victoria Police said they were reluctant to cover Melbourne Victory games because of unacceptable behaviour by fans. Problems included violence, anti-social behaviour and the lighting of flares.[324][325]
Although the A-League is relatively young, there are hooligan and casual groups within clubs' active supporter bases. Although it is nothing like football hooliganism in Europe, anti-social events do occasionally occur. A primary example would be the Bourke Street brawl between Melbourne Victory and Western Sydney Wanderers fans, who gathered in numbers before a match in late 2013 and had a brawl in Melbourne, causing concern among football authorities in Australia. There are small hooligan and casual groups in Australia, the most prominent being from the League's biggest fanbases, Melbourne Victory, Sydney FC and Western Sydney Wanderers though others exist within other supporter groups.
In 2021, police arrested three men for participating in a riot at a National Premier League soccer match in Sydney.[326]
During a match between Melbourne City FC and Melbourne Victory FC in December 2022, Victory fans stormed the pitch after City goalkeeper Tom Glover threw a flare into the crowd. The flare had initially been thrown onto the ground during a pre-planned walkout, as supporters from multiple clubs at the time were protesting the Australian Professional Leagues decision to sell hosting rights of the league's grand final to Sydney.[327] Angered spectators proceeded to rush onto the field, mobbing Glover and referee Alex King. In the midst of the invasion, a metal bucket for disposing of used flares was thrown at Glover's head, gashing his face and concussing him. Both teams immediately left the field of play and police dispersed the unruly mob, and the match was abandoned.[328]
Fiji[edit]
Football hooliganism was banned by the Fiji Football Association in 2020 following two reports of hooliganism at Premier League football matches. The first incident occurred when a Rewa FC player allegedly assaulted a referee in a play-off match against Ba FC. The second incident occurred in Nadi at a match between Nadi FC and Rewa FC, where a group of Nadi fans threatened the referee.[329]
New Zealand[edit]
In 2023, at a Palmerston North United home match against Gisborne Thistle in the Central Federation League, which Palmerston North United lost 4–2, Palmerston North United midfielder Devon Batchelor was physically assaulted by an opposition player and was taken to hospital. Batchelor was diagnosed with a concussion and required stitches. Football New Zealand condemned the incident.[330]
Papua New Guinea[edit]
An incident of soccer hooliganism occurred at PNG Football Stadium in Port Moresby in 2023 after a National Soccer League (PNGNSL) semi-final between Gulf Komara and Hekari United. The match resulted in a 2–0 victory for Hekari United, which led fans to storm the pitch.[331]
In 2017, police were called to a national team (Kapuls) training session after people connected with a fake rebel soccer organisation (dubbed by the media as the "Fake Football Federation") interrupted the training session, which was to prepare for a FIFA World Cup qualifier against the Solomon Islands.[332]
Solomon Islands[edit]
In 2005, a youth national team match at Lawson Tama Stadium in Honiara between Australia (the "Young Socceroos") and the Solomon Islands was abandoned in the 77th minute by New Zealand referee Peter O'Leary due to hooliganism from "several thousand" fans who failed to gain entry (local officials reported that 22,000 spectators were at the match). Australia was winning the match 3–0 until the match was called off.[333]
Media portrayal[edit]
The media portrayal of hooliganism is present in TV, news and all sorts of public media. The recently released Beckham documentary demonstrates an example of this in episode 2: "Seeing Red". Here, the limited series shows a dummy of David Beckham being hung by a noose outside of an English pub following his red card versus Argentina leading to Englands knockout in the 1998 World Cup.[334]
Football hooliganism has been depicted in films such as The Firm, ID, EuroTrip, Cass, The Football Factory, Green Street, Rise of the Footsoldier and Awaydays. There are also many books about hooliganism, such as The Football Factory and Among the Thugs. Some critics argue that these media representations glamorise violence and the hooligan lifestyle. Soccer hooliganism has also been depicted in You Don't Have to Live Like a Referee, an episode of The Simpsons, and the video game Hooligans: Storm Over Europe.