Historical race concepts
The concept of race as a categorization of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) has an extensive history in Europe and the Americas. The contemporary word race itself is modern; historically it was used in the sense of "nation, ethnic group" during the 16th to 19th centuries.[1][2] Race acquired its modern meaning in the field of physical anthropology through scientific racism starting in the 19th century. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in 'races' as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."[3]
Etymology[edit]
The word "race", interpreted to mean an identifiable group of people who share a common descent, was introduced into English in the 16th century from the Old French rasse (1512), from Italian razza: the Oxford English Dictionary cites the earliest example around the mid-16th century and defines its early meaning as a "group of people belonging to the same family and descended from a common ancestor".[4] It also introduces the first use of the word "race" as a term referring to an "ethnic group" in 1572.[5] An earlier but etymologically distinct word for a similar concept was the Latin word genus meaning a group sharing qualities related to birth, descent, origin, race, stock, or family; this Latin word is cognate with the Greek words "genos", (γένος) meaning "race or kind", and "gonos", which has meanings related to "birth, offspring, stock ...".[6]
the or white race. Blumenbach was the first to use this term for Europeans, but the term would later be reinterpreted to also include Middle Easterners and South Asians.
Caucasian
the American or red race, including all .
Native Americans
Cephalometry
Biological anthropology
History of anthropometry
Phrenology
Eugenics
One-drop rule
Racial hygiene
Heritability
Biological determinism
Nature versus nurture
Race and intelligence
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Augstein, Hannah Franziska, ed. Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760–1850. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Press, 1996. 1-85506-454-5
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Banton, Michael P. (1977) The idea of race. Westview Press, Boulder
Banton, Michael P. Racial Theories. 2nd ed. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. 0-521-33456-X
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Barkan, Elazar. The Retreat of Scientific Racism. New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1992.
Bowcock A. M., Kidd JR, Mountain JL, Hebert JM, Carotenuto L, Kidd KK, Cavalli-Sforza LL "Drift, admixture, and selection in human evolution: a study with DNA polymorphisms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1991; 88: 3: 839–43
Bowcock, A. M., "High resolution of human evolutionary trees with polymorphic microsatellites", 1994, Nature, 368: pp. 455–57
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Dain, Bruce R. A Hideous Monster of the Mind: American Race Theory in the Early Republic. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002. 0-674-00946-0
ISBN
Foucault, Michel. Society Must Be Defended: Lectures at the Collège De France, 1975–76. Trans. David Macey. Eds. Mauro Bertani and Alessandro Fontana. City: Picador, 2003. 0-312-20318-7
ISBN
Gossett, Thomas F. Race: The History of an Idea in America. 1963. Ed. and with a foreword by and Arnold Rampersad. Oxford, England: Oxford UP, 1997. ISBN 0-19-509778-5
Shelley Fisher Fishkin
Gould, Stephen Jay. The Mismeasure of Man. Rev. and expand ed. New York: Norton, 1996. 0-393-03972-2
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Hannaford, Ivan. Race: The History of an Idea in the West. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996. 0-8018-5222-6
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Harding, Sandra. The "Racial" Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future. Indiana University Press, 1993.
Hoover, Dwight W. "Paradigm Shift: The Concept of Race in the 1920s and the 1930s". Conspectus of History 1.7 (1981): 82–100.
Koenig, Barbara A., Lee Sandra Soo-Jin, and Richardson Sarah S. Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age. Piscataway: Rutgers University Press, 2008.
Lewis, B. Race and slavery in the Middle East. Oxford University Press, New York, 1990.
Lieberman, L. "How 'Caucasoids' got such big crania and why they shrank: from Morton to Rushton". Current Anthropology 42:69–95, 2001.
Malik, Kenan. The Meaning of Race. New York: New York University Press, 1996.
Meltzer, M. Slavery: a world history, rev ed. DaCapo Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993.
Rick Kittles, and S. O. Y. Keita, "Interpreting African Genetic Diversity", African Archaeological Review, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1999, pp. 1–5
Sarich, Vincent, and Miele Frank. Race: the Reality of Human Differences. Boulder: Westview Press, 2004.
Shipman, Pat. The Evolution of Racism: Human Differences and the Use and Abuse of Science. 1994. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002. 0-674-00862-6
ISBN
Smedley, Audrey. Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview. Boulder: Westview Press, 1999.
Snowden F. M. Before color prejudice: the ancient view of blacks. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1983.
Stanton W. The leopard's spots: scientific attitudes toward race in America, 1815–1859. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1960.
Stepan, Nancy. The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800–1960. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1982 0-208-01972-3
ISBN
Takaki, R. A different mirror: a history of multicultural America. Little, Brown, Boston, 1993.
von Vacano, Diego. The Color of Citizenship: Race, Modernity and Latin American/Hispanic Political Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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