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Historical race concepts

The concept of race as a categorization of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) has an extensive history in Europe and the Americas. The contemporary word race itself is modern; historically it was used in the sense of "nation, ethnic group" during the 16th to 19th centuries.[1][2] Race acquired its modern meaning in the field of physical anthropology through scientific racism starting in the 19th century. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in 'races' as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."[3]

Etymology[edit]

The word "race", interpreted to mean an identifiable group of people who share a common descent, was introduced into English in the 16th century from the Old French rasse (1512), from Italian razza: the Oxford English Dictionary cites the earliest example around the mid-16th century and defines its early meaning as a "group of people belonging to the same family and descended from a common ancestor".[4] It also introduces the first use of the word "race" as a term referring to an "ethnic group" in 1572.[5] An earlier but etymologically distinct word for a similar concept was the Latin word genus meaning a group sharing qualities related to birth, descent, origin, race, stock, or family; this Latin word is cognate with the Greek words "genos", (γένος) meaning "race or kind", and "gonos", which has meanings related to "birth, offspring, stock ...".[6]

the or white race. Blumenbach was the first to use this term for Europeans, but the term would later be reinterpreted to also include Middle Easterners and South Asians.

Caucasian

the or yellow race, including all East Asians.

Mongolian

the or brown race, including Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders.

Malayan

the or black race, including all sub-Saharan Africans.

Ethiopian

the American or red race, including all .

Native Americans

Cephalometry

Biological anthropology

History of anthropometry

Phrenology

Eugenics

One-drop rule

Racial hygiene

Heritability

Biological determinism

Nature versus nurture

Race and intelligence

Alexander, Nathan G. (2019). Race in a Godless World: Atheism, Race, and Civilization, 1850-1914. New York/Manchester: New York University Press/Manchester University Press.  978-1526142375

ISBN

Augstein, Hannah Franziska, ed. Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760–1850. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Press, 1996.  1-85506-454-5

ISBN

Banton, Michael P. (1977) The idea of race. Westview Press, Boulder

Banton, Michael P. Racial Theories. 2nd ed. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.  0-521-33456-X

ISBN

Barkan, Elazar. The Retreat of Scientific Racism. New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1992.

Bowcock A. M., Kidd JR, Mountain JL, Hebert JM, Carotenuto L, Kidd KK, Cavalli-Sforza LL "Drift, admixture, and selection in human evolution: a study with DNA polymorphisms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1991; 88: 3: 839–43

Bowcock, A. M., "High resolution of human evolutionary trees with polymorphic microsatellites", 1994, Nature, 368: pp. 455–57

Brace, C. Loring. "Race" is a Four-Letter Word: the Genesis of the Concept. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Dain, Bruce R. A Hideous Monster of the Mind: American Race Theory in the Early Republic. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002.  0-674-00946-0

ISBN

Foucault, Michel. Society Must Be Defended: Lectures at the Collège De France, 1975–76. Trans. David Macey. Eds. Mauro Bertani and Alessandro Fontana. City: Picador, 2003.  0-312-20318-7

ISBN

Gossett, Thomas F. Race: The History of an Idea in America. 1963. Ed. and with a foreword by and Arnold Rampersad. Oxford, England: Oxford UP, 1997. ISBN 0-19-509778-5

Shelley Fisher Fishkin

Gould, Stephen Jay. The Mismeasure of Man. Rev. and expand ed. New York: Norton, 1996.  0-393-03972-2

ISBN

Hannaford, Ivan. Race: The History of an Idea in the West. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996.  0-8018-5222-6

ISBN

Harding, Sandra. The "Racial" Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future. Indiana University Press, 1993.

Hoover, Dwight W. "Paradigm Shift: The Concept of Race in the 1920s and the 1930s". Conspectus of History 1.7 (1981): 82–100.

Koenig, Barbara A., Lee Sandra Soo-Jin, and Richardson Sarah S. Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age. Piscataway: Rutgers University Press, 2008.

Lewis, B. Race and slavery in the Middle East. Oxford University Press, New York, 1990.

Lieberman, L. "How 'Caucasoids' got such big crania and why they shrank: from Morton to Rushton". Current Anthropology 42:69–95, 2001.

Malik, Kenan. The Meaning of Race. New York: New York University Press, 1996.

Meltzer, M. Slavery: a world history, rev ed. DaCapo Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993.

Rick Kittles, and S. O. Y. Keita, "Interpreting African Genetic Diversity", African Archaeological Review, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1999, pp. 1–5

Sarich, Vincent, and Miele Frank. Race: the Reality of Human Differences. Boulder: Westview Press, 2004.

Shipman, Pat. The Evolution of Racism: Human Differences and the Use and Abuse of Science. 1994. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002.  0-674-00862-6

ISBN

Smedley, Audrey. Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview. Boulder: Westview Press, 1999.

Snowden F. M. Before color prejudice: the ancient view of blacks. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1983.

Stanton W. The leopard's spots: scientific attitudes toward race in America, 1815–1859. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1960.

Stepan, Nancy. The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800–1960. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1982  0-208-01972-3

ISBN

Takaki, R. A different mirror: a history of multicultural America. Little, Brown, Boston, 1993.

von Vacano, Diego. The Color of Citizenship: Race, Modernity and Latin American/Hispanic Political Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

provided by the ARTFL Project, University of Chicago.

Definition of "race" in the 1913 Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary

Definition of "race" in the Wiktionary