Hmong Americans
Hmong Americans (RPA: Hmoob Mes Kas, Pahawh Hmong: "𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬉𖬲𖬦 𖬗𖬲") are Americans of Hmong ancestry. Many Hmong Americans immigrated to the United States as refugees in the late 1970s. Over half of the Hmong population from Laos left the country, or attempted to leave, in 1975, at the culmination of the Laotian Civil War.
Thousands of Hmong were evacuated or escaped on their own to Hmong refugee camps in Thailand.[4] About 90% of those who made it to refugee camps in Thailand were ultimately resettled in the United States. The rest, about 8 to 10%, resettled in countries including Canada, France, the Netherlands, and Australia.
According to the 2021 American Community Survey by the US Census Bureau, the population count for Hmong Americans was 368,609.[5] As of 2019, the largest community in the United States was in the Minneapolis–St. Paul metropolitan area.[6] Hmong Americans face disparities in healthcare, and socioeconomic challenges that lead to lower health literacy and median life expectancy, and per capita income.[7]
Community and social issues[edit]
Lack of education and high dropout rates[edit]
The 2000 US Census reveals that 60% of all Hmong above 24 years of age have a highest educational attainment of high school or equivalent, as many of these immigrants came to America as adults or young adults. According to a government data collected in 2013, 40% of Hmong Americans drop out of school.[59] Among the Hmong population, 38% have not received a high school degree, and 14% have at least a bachelor's degree.[60] Educational attainment among Hmong women is significantly lower than among Hmong men, with about one in five Hmong women having a high school diploma.[61]
The lack of formal education among Hmong immigrants is due to the fact that many were once farmers in the hills of Laos or were refugees from war who fled into remote jungles, and had little or no access to schools.[62]
In St. Paul about 2,000 Hmong people have their bachelor's degree, 150 have their master's degree, and 68 have received their doctoral degree,[63][64][65] which is a very low percentage considering the population of Hmong Americans in St. Paul is less than 36,000.
In the topic of community issues and Hmong in education, factors to consider are family dynamic, parent engagement, accessibility to resources, and the various school climates. The lack of emotional support for Hmong LGBTQ+ youth in Minnesota and Wisconsin reveal mental and health concerns which affect their academic performance.[66]
Hmong girls and boys had also encountered difficulties in achieving success in the field of education as they adapted the Hmong culture, which is considered as rural, to contemporary American society (Ngo & Lor, 2013).[67] Cha suggested that the dropout rate of Hmong teenagers was the highest among those of Asian American groups (2013).[68] In the first few years after immigration, Hmong girls almost had no chance to be educated in school. Later, as they got the opportunities to go to school, around 90% of Hmong girls chose to quit school because parents preferred obedient and compliant daughters-in-law when looking for partners for their sons (Ngo & Lor, 2013).
On the other hand, Hmong young men are burdened more due to the high expectations on sons in Hmong culture, which led to their challenges in school, such as bad relationships with teachers and lack of participation in class. The word used to describe the work those Hmong boys were involved in for family was “helping out” (Ngo & Lor, 2013, p. 155),[67] referring to an accepted and natural habit including working outside, taking care of the siblings, completing daily household, being cultural brokers for parents and attending numerous traditional ceremonies. For example, Hmong boys were asked to write checks to pay for utility bills and to prepare food for their younger brothers. Also, they went to ceremonies not only to maintain the family relationship but also to keep the traditions from disappearing.
According to Yang (2013),[69] after three decades of struggle, Hmong Americans had achieved in economic, political and educational aspects. Starting from small business, the businesses of Hmong had become international, diverse and high-tech since 2000. For example, about 50 home health care agencies which were supported by federal or state medical assistance were run by Hmong in Minnesota. The Hmong were also more involved in political activities that 57 percent of the Hmong in Minnesota regarded themselves as Democrats, shown by a survey in 2008, and several Hmong people, including Madison P. Nguyen, former Hmong refugee women in Minnesota, had been elected political staffs in city offices.
Income and poverty rates[edit]
2017 data collected by the US government found that Hmong Americans had a median household income of $48,000 compared to the American average of $53,600.[70] The government estimated that 38% of Hmong Americans lived below the poverty line, compared to 16% of all Americans.[71][72][59] The 2014 American Community Survey found that per capita income of Hmong Americans was $12,923, significantly lower than the American average of $25,825. When income is compared between US ethnic groups, Hmong Americans are the third lowest earning group.[72] In a 2013, NPR discussion, sociologist Rosalind Chou stated that "when you break it down by specific ethnic groups, the Hmong, the Bangladeshi, they have poverty rates that rival the African-American poverty rate."[73]
Culture and politics[edit]
There are many cultural, political, and social issues that are being debated among Hmong American communities. Topics include political participation, poverty, gang violence, race relations, and education. The Hmong community also retains many ties with the Hmong still in Indochina and remains active in regional politics. In the United States, the Hmong clan system continues to exist, but with less influence over younger generations.[74]
Politics and culture vary with the location of Hmong-American communities. The Twin Cities, St. Paul and Minneapolis, are progressive as the queer/LGBTQ+ culture and politics surrounding sexuality and gender are recognized at the local, regional, state, and national level.[75][76]
Sexuality[edit]
Heterosexuality and heteronormativity are traditionally tied to the Hmong identity and its history[76][77] but attitudes in Hmong Americans appear to be shifting.[74] In the Hmong American community, non-traditional gender and sexual identities have gained increasing cultural, political, and social acceptance over time.[78][76][77]
In 2003, Shades of Yellow (SOY) began as a social support network in St. Paul, Minnesota for Hmong LGBTQ+, and then developed into a non-profit organization with an expanded focus on advocacy and education.[79][76] After SOY closed in 2017,[80] existing groups and new groups continued to provide support for Hmong LGBTQ+ people, such as the Hmong American Women's Association, Freedom, Inc., Cia Siab, Inc., and Hmong Queer Suab.[76]
In December 2015, the Sacramento Hmong LGBTQIA group formed[81] and organized support groups for Hmong LGBTQIA people,[82] and founder Dee Lee participated in the 2016 The Asian Pacific Islander Queer Sacramento Coalition conference.[81]
Sexual health is critical to the LGBTQ+ Hmong community as it is for the general Southeast Asian (SEA) community throughout the country. Sexual education and awareness, as well as education regarding online sex culture, is recommended when considering sexual health.[83]
Mental health[edit]
Compared to other Southeast Asian refugees in America, Hmong refugees have the highest rates of mental health disorders,[84] with an overall mental illness incidence rate at around 33.5%.[85] This mental health problem has been attributed to traumatic past experiences and problems adjusting to life in the United States.[86]
Gender roles play an integral factor for the mental health of Hmong women. Gender construct of Hmong women, traditionally, socially and politically, have historically been oppressive and marginalizing. Even in traditional Hmong cloth (paj ntaub) and folklore (dab neej) Hmong gender roles are concretely sewn and told, and repeated. Misogyny and patriarchy in the Hmong community is present to this day which calls for Hmong women empowerment initiatives throughout the United States.[87]
In religious and traditional Hmong families the subject of mental health is taboo because of Shamanism, with the belief that remedy to health is through communication and exchanges with spirits. Through spiritual ceremonies, overall health is remedied, not through health facilities or specialists, not through science.[78] In addition, LGBTQ+ Hmong individuals struggle with mental health due to the lack of education and attention on mental health in Hmong communities, deals with depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and suicide.[78]
Health disparities[edit]
In other aspects of health, like cancer, Hmong Americans have the highest cancer mortality rates compared to other Asian American groups. Low cancer screenings and lack of interventions to address stigma of utilizing public health services are among some reasons for this trend.[88] Access to education can help with increasing health practices like receiving a Pap test for cervical cancer screening.[89] A Patient Navigation Program implemented in San Francisco for Hmong Americans led to a 38% increase in Pap test participation, highlighting progress made in increasing participation via education.[90] A cross-sectional study of 168 immigrant Hmong Americans found that half of them reported not understanding health information. Factors like acculturation and number of years in the US were positively correlated with health literacy rate, and lower health literacy rates were associated with poor health in the participants.[91] Acculturation indicators such as language use and social connections, were positively correlated with higher BMI-for-age in Hmong American children 9–18 years old.[92]
A study of 417 Hmong American parents and caregivers showed that the top two contributing factors to perceived barriers to immunization were socioeconomic position and use of traditional Hmong healthcare.[93] Traditional Hmong healthcare includes the use of a traditional Hmong healer shaman, who is used as a complement to Western medicine by Hmong patients.[94] Health disparities faced by Hmong Americans are overlooked with combined data that do not disaggregate ethnic groups within the label, Asian American.[95]
Violence[edit]
Hmong Americans have experienced violence after immigrating to the United States. Some specific instances of violence against Hmong Americans have been murders, of which a few have occurred while they were engaging in hunting.[96] Hmong Americans have hunted because it is a common traditional practice in countries such as Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand. These are common countries from which the Hmong ethnic group has immigrated, although they do not have a specific home country. Chong Moua Yang, a Hmong American hunter, was murdered in Bath Township, Michigan on November 16, 2018.[97] His murder, however, still remains unsolved.
In a 2018 study of 231 college students' experience and knowledge surrounding domestic violence, Takahashi and Lee found that two thirds were aware of domestic violence in their community, and 32.8% of Hmong women experienced violence. These domestic issues would be solved within clan systems and divorce is often not welcomed in order to maintain the relationship.[98]