Master of Laws
A Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin: Magister Legum or Legum Magister) is an advanced postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In most jurisdictions, the LL.M. is the advanced professional degree for those usually already admitted into legal practice.
"LL.M." redirects here. For other uses, see LLM (disambiguation).Definition[edit]
To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, a person must first obtain a law degree. In most common law countries, a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) is required. In the United States, the Juris Doctor (J.D.) is generally a requirement to practice law.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] Some jurisdictions, such as Canada and Australia, require either an LL.B. or J.D.[9] Individuals with law degrees must typically pass an additional set of examinations to qualify as a lawyer.[10][11][12][13]
The LL.M. program is a postgraduate program, typically for individuals who either possess a law degree or have qualified as a lawyer. The word legum is the genitive plural form of the Latin word lex and means "of the laws". When used in the plural, it signifies a specific body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words "juris" and "justice" derive.
An LL.M. is also typically a requirement for entry into the research doctoral programs in law, such as the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D or J.S.D.), the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D. or DPhil) or doctorat en droit (in France), Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Dr. iur.) (in Germany), the Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.), and the Doctor of Laws" (LL.D.).
Historically, the LL.M. degree is an element particular to the education system of English speaking countries, which is based on a distinction between bachelor's and master's degrees. Over the past years, however, specialized LL.M. programs have been introduced in many European countries.
Types of LL.M. degrees[edit]
A wide range of LL.M. programs are available worldwide, allowing students to focus on almost any area of the law. Most universities offer only a small number of LL.M. programs. One of the most popular LL.M. degrees in the United States is in tax law, sometimes referred to as an MLT (Master of Laws in Taxation).
In Europe, LL.M. programs in European law are popular, often referred to as LL.M. Eur (Master of European Law).
In the Netherlands and its former colonies, the title used was Meester in de Rechten (mr.). This title is still widely used in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium), especially by those who studied Dutch or Belgian law respectively.
Some LL.M. programs, particularly in the United States, and also in China, focus on teaching foreign lawyers the basic legal principles of the host country.
The length of time to study an LLM program depends on the mode of study. Most full-time on-campus courses take one academic year to complete. Other students may complete their LLM program on a part-time basis over two years, and increasingly courses are available online. Part-time online courses can take between two and five years to complete.
Requirements[edit]
LL.M. programs are usually only open to those students who have first obtained a degree in law, typically an LL.B. or J.D. Some programs are exceptions to this, requiring only an undergraduate degree or extensive experience in a related field. Full-time LL.M. programs usually last one year and vary in their graduation requirements. Most programs require or allow students to write a thesis. Some programs are research oriented with little classroom time, while others require students to take a set number of classes.
LL.M. degrees are often earned by students wishing to develop more concentrated expertise in a particular area of law. Pursuing an LL.M. degree may also allow law students to build a professional network. Some associations provide LL.M. degree holders with structures designed to strengthen their connections among peers and to access a competitive business environment, much like an MBA degree.
LL.M. programs by country[edit]
Australia[edit]
In Australia, the LL.M. is generally only open to law graduates. However, some universities permit non-law graduates to undertake variants of the degree. There are nearly 100 LLM courses in Australia across 25 institutions taught in English.[14]
Unique variants of the LL.M. exist, such as the Master of Legal Practice (M.L.P.) available at the Australian National University, where students who have completed the Graduate Diploma of Legal Practice (which law graduates must obtain before being able to be admitted as a solicitor/barrister), will be granted some credit towards the Master qualification. Other variants of the LL.M. are more similar to the LL.M. available in the wider Commonwealth but under a different title, for example Master of Commercial Law, Master of International Law or Master of Human Rights Law. These courses are usually more specialised than a standard LL.M.
Canada[edit]
In Canada, the LL.M. is generally open to law graduates holding an LL.B., LL.L., B.C.L., or a J.D. as a first degree. Students can choose to take research-based LL.M. degrees or course-based LL.M. degrees. Research-based LL.M. degrees are one- or two-year programs that require students to write a thesis that makes a significant contribution to their field of research. Course-based LL.M. degrees do not require a significant research paper. An LL.M. can be studied part-time, and at some schools, through distance learning. LL.M. degrees can be general, or students can choose to pursue a specialized area of research.
Foreign trained lawyers who wish to practice in Canada will first need to have their education and experience assessed by the Federation of Law Societies of Canada's National Committee on Accreditation. Upon having received a certificate of accreditation from the National Committee on Accreditation, foreign law graduates would then have to obtain articles with a law firm, take the professional legal training course, and pass the professional exams to be called to the bar in a province. The University of British Columbia's LLM in Common Law is an example of one of a few LLM courses that help to prepare students for the professional exams.
China (Mainland)[edit]
The LL.M. is available at China University of Political Science and Law, and the entrance requirements are: native English competency, or near native English, with any bachelor's degree. The program is flexible and allows students to study Mandarin and assists with organizing work experience in Beijing and other cities in China. It normally takes two years, but can be completed in one and a half years if students take the required credits in time.[15]
The flagship of the China-EU School of Law (CESL) in Beijing is a Double Master Programme including a Master of Chinese Law and a Master of European and International Law. The Master of European and International Law is taught in English, open for international students and can be studied as a single master programme.[16] CESL also offers an International Master of Chinese Law (IMCL) which is an LL.M. in Chinese law taught entirely in English.[17]
Beijing Foreign Studies University has launched an online LLM for international professionals. The course is taken over two years, with the first covering online lessons through video and assignments, the second year is for the dissertation and an online defense is required at the end. Students are required to attend Beijing for an introductory week in September to enroll and meet students and staff. Students also have the opportunity to take work experience at a top five law firm in China.[18][19]
LL.M degree programs are available at many other universities in Mainland China, such as at Peking University, Tsinghua University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, and Shanghai International Studies University.
France[edit]
In France,[22] the LL.M. is in English. The LL.M. in International Business Law is available at Panthéon-Assas University (Paris), the oldest school of law in France.
The entrance requirements are: