Bachelor of Laws
A Bachelor of Laws (Latin: Legum Baccalaureus; LL.B) is an undergraduate law degree offered in most common law countries as the primary law degree and serves as the first professional qualification for legal practitioners. This degree requires the study of core legal subjects and jurisprudence to provide a comprehensive understanding of the legal system and its function. The LLB curriculum is designed to impart a thorough knowledge of legal principles, legal research skills, and a sound understanding of the roles and responsibilities of lawyers within society. This degree is often a prerequisite for taking bar exams or qualifying as a practicing lawyer, depending on the jurisdiction. Additionally, the LLB program also serves as a foundation for further legal education, such as a Master of Laws (LLM) or other postgraduate studies in law.
"LLB" redirects here. For other uses, see LLB (disambiguation).Region awarded[edit]
Bachelor of Laws degrees are awarded by universities in regions including Europe, Australia, China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Bangladesh, India, Japan, Pakistan, Uganda, Kenya, Ghana, New Zealand, Nigeria, Singapore, South Africa, Botswana, Israel, Brazil, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and United Kingdom. In the United States, the Bachelor of Laws was the primary law degree until the 1960s, when it was phased out in favor of the Juris Doctor; Canada followed suit in the early 21st century.[1]
History[edit]
The first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates.[2][3][4] The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, which were also schools of law.[5] The first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age.[6] While it was common for students of law to visit and study at schools in other countries, such was not the case with England because of the English rejection of Roman law (except for certain jurisdictions such as the Admiralty Court). Although the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge did teach canon law until the English Reformation, its importance was always superior to civil law in those institutions.[7]
"LLB" stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin. The "LL." of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum ("of laws"). Creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter (e.g., "pp." for "pages").
The bachelor's degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented with the Bachelor of Arts degree at Oxford and Cambridge.[8] The "arts" designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics.[9] In continental Europe, the bachelor's degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford and Cambridge.
The teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law.[10] Professional training for practising common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation.[11] However, because of the lack of standardisation of study and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently of importance for the education of lawyers in the English speaking world.[12]
In England in 1292, when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system.[13] The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation.[14] By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialised in purpose.[15] With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.[16]
Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades.[17] The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729. William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the programme for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were philosophical and theoretical in nature.[18] Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.[19]
The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. Therefore, in 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to the legal education provided in the United States. Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.[12] When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, the LLB became the uniform degree for lawyers in common law countries.
Alternative titles and formats[edit]
Irish BCL and LLB[edit]
The four universities under the National University of Ireland umbrella, award the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL). Four Irish universities and two Northern Irish universities award an LLB NUIG offer the LLB as a 1-year postgraduate course for holders of the Bachelor of Corporate Law or Bachelor of Arts in law degrees.
Some English and Welsh universities award an LLB in Irish law.
In the nineteenth century, the University of London conferred degrees of LLB on clerical and lay students at St. Patrick's College, Carlow from 1840 onwards.[39]
The King's Inns Barrister-at-Law degree B.L. is a postgraduate degree and is required to practice as a barrister in Ireland.
Zimbabwe B.L. and LLB[edit]
At the University of Zimbabwe, the first degree in common law was the Bachelor of Laws (BL), which was equivalent to the LLB in other common law jurisdictions. It was followed by a one-year programme at the university (analogous to post-LLB vocational programmes in other common law jurisdictions) at the end of which a second degree, the Bachelor of Laws (LLB), was awarded. The curriculum has since been changed and now only one four-year honours LLB degree is awarded.[40]
Variations on the LLB[edit]
Some universities in the United Kingdom and New Zealand offer variations, which generally take four years to complete and include a wider range of topics as well as some degree of specialisation or the study of multiple jurisdictions, such as the LLB Law with French Law and Language offered by the University of East Anglia.[41]
Various universities in the United Kingdom and Australia will allow a degree that combines study with a non-law discipline. For example, some universities in the United Kingdom offer a combined study of law and history leading to a B.A. degree that is accepted by the Law Society and Inns of Court as equivalent to an LLB.
The University of London External Programme in Laws (LLB) has been awarding its law degree via distance learning since 1858.
At the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the principal law degree remains the Bachelor of Arts, in either Jurisprudence or Law, which is equivalent to an LLB in other universities. Traditionally, the LLB at Cambridge, as well as the Bachelor of Civil Law at Oxford, were postgraduate degrees for specialising in law. The University of Cambridge, recently, replaced their LLB title with that of the LLM, which Oxford retains the BCL as a master's level course, equivalent to the LLM.
Some universities in the UK including Bournemouth University have a four-year LLB course, which consists of a 40-week industrial work placement.[42] Staffordshire University also offers a two-year full-time LLB course.[43]
LLB programs in syaria and common law have been introduced by some universities in Pakistan and Malaysia. [44][45]
European LLB programs[edit]
European Union law permits European Union citizens with LLB degrees from one EU Member State, who practise law and have been qualified lawyers in their jurisdiction for three or more years, to practise also in every other member state. The actual procedure to receive the respective national licence is regulated by the member state and therefore differs from country to country, and temporary restrictions may in certain cases exist, but every EU member has to apply the relevant EU Directives to its own national law.
As a consequence of the Bologna Process, recently many universities of applied sciences and a few traditional universities in Germany have introduced LLB programmes, replacing the Diplom-Wirtschaftsjurist degree. The LLB is a three or four-year full-time law degree. As opposed to courses of study leading to the State Examination—the master's-level professional law degree in Germany—most LLB degree programmes concentrate on private law and may feature a component of education in business administration. Graduates of LLB courses can continue LLM studies and in some cases sit for the first State Examination after one or more years of additional law studies in order to qualify for practising law in Germany.
In Malta, the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree, offered by the University of Malta, is an undergraduate degree that of itself is not sufficient for admission into any of the legal professions. Likewise, in Italy a five-year course in law (Laurea magistrale in giurisprudenza a ciclo unico) is offered by law schools. The Italian Diploma in Law, equivalent to the LLB, does not directly qualify one for a career in any legal profession, as graduates are required to undergo a traineeship for 18 months before taking a government exam to sit for the Italian bar or take the exam as public notary. Alternatively, this requirement can be met by undertaking two further year of studies (Diploma di specializzazione per le professioni legali – equivalent of a 2-year Master of Arts).[55][56]
In Spain, there is no comparable degree to the LLB Law studies in Spain last for four years in total, culminating in the "Grado en Derecho". Prior to that, the sole degree of "Licenciatura en Derecho" allowed graduates of law direct access to the legal profession without further training and masters. Currently, holders of a Spanish law degree must attend a specific LLM in Legal practice course (similar to the former British LPC) to gain admission to the Spanish bar.
In Denmark, universities now offer three-year LLB programmes, although this is not sufficient to practice law. Students wishing to practice law should continue with a Masters in Law programme, leading to the cand.jur. degree. Alternatively, students may choose to use the LLB as a basis for other courses within the social sciences or humanities.