Polish–Lithuanian War
The Polish–Lithuanian War (in Polish historiography, Polish–Lithuanian Conflict[6][7]) was an undeclared war between newly independent Lithuania and Poland following World War I, which happened mainly in the Vilnius and Suwałki regions. The war is viewed differently by the respective sides. According to Lithuanian historians, it was part of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence and lasted from May 1919 to 29 November 1920.[3] Polish historians deem the Polish–Lithuanian war as occurring only in September–October 1920. Since the spring of 1920, the conflict became part of the wider Polish–Soviet War[8] and was largely shaped by its progress. It was subject to international mediation at the Conference of Ambassadors and the League of Nations.
In the aftermath of World War I, the military and political situation in the region was chaotic, as multiple countries, notably Lithuania, Poland, and Soviet Russia, vied with each other over control of these areas.[a] The Polish–Lithuanian conflict was centered on Vilnius,[3] which the Lithuanian Council (Taryba) declared the capital of the restored Lithuanian state.[9] Control of Vilnius was transferred from Germans to Poles on January 2, 1919, but the Polish Army lost the city to the Bolsheviks on January 5.[10] The Polish Army seized Vilnius again on April 19, 1919[11] and came in contact with the Lithuanian Army fighting in the Lithuanian–Soviet War. Despite the antagonism over Vilnius, the Lithuanian and Polish armies sometimes cooperated when fighting against a common enemy, the Bolsheviks.[8] As Lithuanian–Polish relations worsened, the Entente drew two demarcation lines in hopes to stall further hostilities. The lines did not please either side and were ignored. The first open clashes between Polish and Lithuanian forces were the Sejny uprising of August 1919.[12] With the Polish coup against the Lithuanian government failing in August 1919, the front stabilized until the summer of 1920.
In July 1920, Polish forces retreated due to reverses in the Polish–Soviet War and the Lithuanians followed the retreating troops to secure their lands as delineated in the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty. However, the Red Army was the first to enter Vilnius. In August 1920, Poland won the Battle of Warsaw and forced the Soviets to retreat. The Polish Army encountered Lithuanian opposition, defending their new borders, which the Polish government considered illegitimate. Thus, the Polish invaded Lithuanian-controlled territory during the Battle of the Niemen River. Under pressure from the League of Nations, Poland signed the Suwałki Agreement on October 7, 1920. The agreement left the Suwałki region on the Polish side and drew a new incomplete demarcation line, which left Vilnius vulnerable to a flanking maneuver.[13]
On October 8, 1920, Polish general Lucjan Żeligowski staged a mutiny, secretly planned and authorized by the Polish chief of state Józef Piłsudski. Żeligowski's forces marched on Vilnius and captured it one day before the Suwałki Agreement was to formally come into effect,[14] but their further offensive was halted by the Lithuanians. Żeligowski proclaimed the creation of the Republic of Central Lithuania with its capital in Vilnius.
On November 29, 1920, a ceasefire was signed. Overall, from early 1919 to late 1920, Vilnius would switch rule[b] as many as seven times between Lithuanians, Poles and the Bolsheviks.[3] The Republic of Central Lithuania was incorporated into Poland as the Wilno Voivodeship in 1922. The prolonged mediation by the League of Nations did not change the situation and the status quo was accepted in 1923.
In March 1923, the Conference of Ambassadors recognized the armistice line as a de jure Polish–Lithuanian border, awarding Vilnius to Poland.[22][23] Lithuania did not recognize these developments,[23] continued to claim Vilnius as its constitutional capital and broke all diplomatic relations with Poland which were not restored until the March 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania. Vilnius was regained by Lithuania only after twenty years, on 28 October 1939, following the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty. However, Lithuania as a whole lost its independence less than a year later following the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states.
May–September 1919: rising tensions[edit]
Demarcation lines[edit]
The Conference of Ambassadors drew the first demarcation line on June 18, 1919.[79] The line, drawn about 5 km (3.1 mi) west of the Grodno – Vilnius – Dyneburg Railway, was based on the military situation on the ground rather than ethnic composition.[79][80] Neither Poles nor Lithuanians were content with the line. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs rejected the line as it would require the Polish forces to retreat up to 35 km (22 mi).[80] The line also left the entire Suwałki region, with exception of Augustów, on the Lithuanian side.[55] The Lithuanians protested leaving Vilnius and Grodno under Polish control.[80] As German volunteers were departing from Lithuania and Lithuanian forces were preoccupied with battles against the Soviets in northern Lithuania, Poland ignored the demacration line and moved its forces on a 100 km (62 mi) wide front 20–30 km (12–19 mi) deeper eastward.[81]
On July 18, Ferdinand Foch proposed the second demarcation line, known as the Foch Line.[82] It was approved by the Entente on July 26. The Lithuanians were informed about the new line only on August 3.[83] Two major modifications favorable to the Poles were made: the Suwałki Region was assigned to Poland and the entire line was moved about 7 km (4.3 mi) west.[84] Again, both Poles and Lithuanians protested the line as it would require them to withdraw their armies from the Vilnius and Suwałki Regions respectively. The German administration, which had not yet retreated from the Suwałki Region, also opposed the Foch Line.[85] The new line did not immediately halt the hostilities. After a couple of Polish attacks on July 29 and August 2, the front stabilized.[86]
September 1919 – June 1920: minor incidents[edit]
Military developments[edit]
After the failure of the coup in Kaunas, there were numerous small border incidents. On September 17 and 18, Lithuanian troops attacked and occupied Musninkai and Širvintos, and were soon driven from them.[108] On September 19, 1919, Polish troops attacked Gelvonai and encroached towards Ukmergė.[109] On several occasions fights broke out regarding a strategically important bridge over the Šventoji River near Vepriai.[110] In October, when main Lithuanian forces were deployed against the Bermontians in northwestern Lithuania, the attacks intensified. Poles captured Salakas on October 5[95] and attacked Kapčiamiestis on October 12.[90] When Polish troops were engaged in combat with Soviet forces German troops attacked Alanta on January 11, 1920, and Stakliškės on January 14.[111] The front stabilized, but harassment of border guards and local villagers continued throughout early 1920.
In March 1920, fights erupted along the railroad stations in Kalkūni and Turmantas.[112][113] The situation was investigated by British and French observers and reported to the Entente. The situation somewhat improved only in late spring 1920, when most Polish troops were deployed in Ukraine during the Polish–Soviet War.[95]
At the time Lithuania faced a severe budget crisis – in 1919 its revenue was 72 million while expenses reached 190 million German marks.[114] While the government was struggling to obtain financial assistance and loans, deep cuts affected the army. Instead of increasing its armed forces to 40,000 men, Lithuania was forced to cut them to about 25,000.[115]
Diplomatic developments[edit]
After the failed coup, Leon Wasilewski left Kaunas and settled in Vilnius. There he met twice, on September 15 and 24, with Lithuanian Foreign Minister Augustian Voldemaras. The talks concerned bilateral relations, the possibility of a plebiscite, and ended without any concrete agreements.[116] Wasilewski then began propaganda work involving Lithuanian activists Józef Albin Herbaczewski, priest Antanas Viskantas or Jurgis Aukštuolaitis, who had been released from prison, and published bilingual or Lithuanian-language press for this purpose.[117]
Meanwhile, British influence was increasing in the Baltic States, interested primarily in limiting German, but also French influence.[118] A British military mission was established in Kaunas, headed by Richard Barrington Ward. On September 19, 1919, along with 21 other British officers, General Frank Percy Crozier joined the newly established Lithuanian Army as an advisor to the General Staff. On September 25, 1919, the UK recognized the Lithuanian state de facto. The British also provided military equipment.[118]
Latvia fought against the German-Russian forces of Pavel Bermondt-Avalov. Latvia enjoyed the support of Poland. The fighting spread to Lithuania in October 1919. Poland offered to help, but the Lithuanians refused to allow passage through their territory. Fearing a Polish attack, Lithuania reached an agreement with the Bermontians and signed a truce on October 30, establishing the Tauragė-Šiauliai demacration line.[119] After the Latvian army breached the front, the Lithuanian army joined the counteroffensive. Later clashes were stopped by the intervention of an Entente representative, in order to not interrupt withdrawal of German troops. By December 15, all German forces were completely removed from Lithuania. At the same time, the plenipotentiary of the German government Ludwig Zimmerle was forced to leave Kaunas.[120] On December 30, a Polish-Latvian alliance was signed, resulting in a joint fight for the liberation of Daugavpils, which was successful on January 5, 1920. Lithuanian troops attempted an early entry into the city, but without success.[121]
In April 1920, Lithuania held its first parliamentary elections, among the constituencies established were cities outside the Lithuanian administration: Vilnius, Lida, Grodno and Białystok. The Polish minority had limited opportunities for election campaigning, the only Polish newspaper was closed down, and as a result Poles received only 3 parliamentary seats.[122] Kazys Grinius became the new prime minister. On May 11, 1920, France recognized Lithuania de facto.[123] And on May 7, 1920, Lithuania began peace talks with Soviet Russia.[124]