Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy (also psychological therapy, talk therapy, or talking therapy) is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change behavior, increase happiness, and overcome problems. Psychotherapy aims to improve an individual's well-being and mental health, to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviors, beliefs, compulsions, thoughts, or emotions, and to improve relationships and social skills.[1] Numerous types of psychotherapy have been designed either for individual adults, families, or children and adolescents. Certain types of psychotherapy are considered evidence-based for treating some diagnosed mental disorders; other types have been criticized as pseudoscience.[2]
For the academic journal, see Psychotherapy (journal).Psychotherapy
There are hundreds of psychotherapy techniques, some being minor variations; others are based on very different conceptions of psychology.[3] Most involve one-to-one sessions, between the client and therapist, but some are conducted with groups,[4] including families.
Psychotherapists may be mental health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health nurses, clinical social workers, marriage and family therapists, or professional counselors. Psychotherapists may also come from a variety of other backgrounds, and depending on the jurisdiction may be legally regulated, voluntarily regulated or unregulated (and the term itself may be protected or not).
Definitions[edit]
The term psychotherapy is derived from Ancient Greek psyche (ψυχή meaning "breath; spirit; soul") and therapeia (θεραπεία "healing; medical treatment"). The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "The treatment of disorders of the mind or personality by psychological means...", however, in earlier use it denoted the treatment of disease through hypnotic suggestion.[5] Psychotherapy is often dubbed as a "talking therapy" or "talk therapy", particularly for a general audience,[6] though not all forms of psychotherapy rely on verbal communication.[7] Children or adults who do not engage in verbal communication (or not in the usual way) are not excluded from psychotherapy; indeed some types are designed for such cases.
The American Psychological Association adopted a resolution on the effectiveness of psychotherapy in 2012 based on a definition developed by American psychologist John C. Norcross: "Psychotherapy is the informed and intentional application of clinical methods and interpersonal stances derived from established psychological principles for the purpose of assisting people to modify their behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and/or other personal characteristics in directions that the participants deem desirable".[8] Influential editions of a work by psychiatrist Jerome Frank defined psychotherapy as a healing relationship using socially authorized methods in a series of contacts primarily involving words, acts and rituals—which Frank regarded as forms of persuasion and rhetoric.[9] Historically, psychotherapy has sometimes meant "interpretative" (i.e. Freudian) methods, namely psychoanalysis, in contrast with other methods to treat psychiatric disorders such as behavior modification.[10]
Some definitions of counseling overlap with psychotherapy (particularly in non-directive client-centered approaches), or counseling may refer to guidance for everyday problems in specific areas, typically for shorter durations with a less medical or "professional" focus.[11] Somatotherapy refers to the use of physical changes as injuries and illnesses, and sociotherapy to the use of a person's social environment to effect therapeutic change.[12] Psychotherapy may address spirituality as a significant part of someone's mental / psychological life, and some forms are derived from spiritual philosophies, but practices based on treating the spiritual as a separate dimension are not necessarily considered as traditional or 'legitimate' forms of psychotherapy.[13]
Delivery[edit]
Psychotherapy may be delivered in person (one on one, or with couples, or in groups) or via telephone counseling or online counseling (see also § Telepsychotherapy).[14] There have also been developments in computer-assisted therapy, such as virtual reality therapy for behavioral exposure, multimedia programs to teach cognitive techniques, and handheld devices for improved monitoring or putting ideas into practice (see also § Computer-supported).[14][15]
Most forms of psychotherapy use spoken conversation. Some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story or music. Psychotherapy with children and their parents often involves play, dramatization (i.e. role-play), and drawing, with a co-constructed narrative from these non-verbal and displaced modes of interacting.[16]
Effects[edit]
Evaluation[edit]
There is considerable controversy about whether, or when, psychotherapy efficacy is best evaluated by randomized controlled trials or more individualized idiographic methods.[139]
One issue with trials is what to use as a placebo treatment group or non-treatment control group. Often, this group includes patients on a waiting list, or those receiving some kind of regular non-specific contact or support. Researchers must consider how best to match the use of inert tablets or sham treatments in placebo-controlled studies in pharmaceutical trials. Several interpretations and differing assumptions and language remain.[140] Another issue is the attempt to standardize and manualize therapies and link them to specific symptoms of diagnostic categories, making them more amenable to research. Some report that this may reduce efficacy or gloss over individual needs. Fonagy and Roth's opinion is that the benefits of the evidence-based approach outweighs the difficulties.[141]
There are several formal frameworks for evaluating whether a psychotherapist is a good fit for a patient. One example is the Scarsdale Psychotherapy Self-Evaluation (SPSE).[142] However, some scales, such as the SPS, elicit information specific to certain schools of psychotherapy alone (e.g. the superego).
Many psychotherapists believe that the nuances of psychotherapy cannot be captured by questionnaire-style observation, and prefer to rely on their own clinical experiences and conceptual arguments to support the type of treatment they practice. Psychodynamic therapists increasingly believe that evidence-based approaches are appropriate to their methods and assumptions, and have increasingly accepted the challenge to implement evidence-based approaches in their methods.[143]
A pioneer in investigating the results of different psychological therapies was psychologist Hans Eysenck, who argued that psychotherapy does not produce any improvement in patients. He held that behavior therapy is the only effective one. However, it was revealed that Eysenck (who died in 1997) falsified data in his studies about this subject, fabricating data that would indicate that behavioral therapy enables achievements that are impossible to believe. Fourteen of his papers were retracted by journals in 2020, and journals issued 64 statements of concern about publications by him. Rod Buchanan, a biographer of Eysenck, has argued that 87 publications by Eysenck should be retracted.[144][145][146][147][148][149][150]
Outcomes in relation with selected kinds of treatment[edit]
Large-scale international reviews of scientific studies have concluded that psychotherapy is effective for numerous conditions.[8][21] A 2022 meta-analysis of meta-analyses found that effect sizes reported for both psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies, compared to treatment-as-usual or placebo, were small for most disorders and treatments, and concluded that a "paradigm shift in research" was needed to advance the field and improve treatment strategies for mental disorders.[151]
One line of research consistently found that supposedly different forms of psychotherapy show similar effectiveness. According to the 2008 edition of The Handbook of Counseling Psychology: "Meta-analyses of psychotherapy studies have consistently demonstrated that there are no substantial differences in outcomes among treatments".[152] The handbook stated that "little evidence suggests that any one treatment consistently outperforms any other for any specific psychological disorders".[152] This is sometimes called the Dodo bird verdict after a scene/section in Alice in Wonderland where every competitor in a race was called a winner and is given prizes.
Further analyses seek to identify the factors that the psychotherapies have in common that seem to account for this, known as common factors theory; for example the quality of the therapeutic relationship, interpretation of problem, and the confrontation of painful emotions.[153][154][155][156]
Outcome studies have been critiqued for being too removed from real-world practice in that they use carefully selected therapists who have been extensively trained and monitored, and patients who may be non-representative of typical patients by virtue of strict inclusionary/exclusionary criteria. Such concerns impact the replication of research results and the ability to generalize from them to practicing therapists.[154][157]
However, specific therapies have been tested for use with specific disorders,[158] and regulatory organizations in both the UK and US make recommendations for different conditions.[159][160][161]
The Helsinki Psychotherapy Study was one of several large long-term clinical trials of psychotherapies that have taken place. Anxious and depressed patients in two short-term therapies (solution-focused and brief psychodynamic) improved faster, but five years long-term psychotherapy and psychoanalysis gave greater benefits. Several patient and therapist factors appear to predict suitability for different psychotherapies.[162]
Meta-analyses have established that cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and psychodynamic psychotherapy are equally effective in treating depression.[163]
A 2014 meta analysis over 11,000 patients reveals that Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) is of comparable effectiveness to CBT for depression but is inferior to the latter for eating disorders.[164] For children and adolescents, interpersonal psychotherapy and CBT are the best methods according to a 2014 meta analysis of almost 4000 patients.[165]
Mechanisms of change[edit]
It is not yet understood how psychotherapies can succeed in treating mental illnesses.[166] Different therapeutic approaches may be associated with particular theories about what needs to change in a person for a successful therapeutic outcome.
In general, processes of emotional arousal and memory have long been held to play an important role. One theory combining these aspects proposes that permanent change occurs to the extent that the neuropsychological mechanism of memory reconsolidation is triggered and is able to incorporate new emotional experiences.[167][168][169][170]
Adherence[edit]
Patient adherence to a course of psychotherapy—continuing to attend sessions or complete tasks—is a major issue.
The dropout level—early termination—ranges from around 30% to 60%, depending partly on how it is defined. The range is lower for research settings for various reasons, such as the selection of clients and how they are inducted. Early termination is associated on average with various demographic and clinical characteristics of clients, therapists and treatment interactions.[171][172] The high level of dropout has raised some criticism about the relevance and efficacy of psychotherapy.[173]
Most psychologists use between-session tasks in their general therapy work, and cognitive behavioral therapies in particular use and see them as an "active ingredient". It is not clear how often clients do not complete them, but it is thought to be a pervasive phenomenon.[171]
From the other side, the adherence of therapists to therapy protocols and techniques—known as "treatment integrity" or "fidelity"—has also been studied, with complex mixed results.[174] In general, however, it is a hallmark of evidence-based psychotherapy to use fidelity monitoring as part of therapy outcome trials and ongoing quality assurance in clinical implementation.
Adverse effects[edit]
Research on adverse effects of psychotherapy has been limited, yet worsening of symptoms may be expected to occur in 3% to 15% of patients, with variability across patient and therapist characteristics.[175][176][177] Potential problems include deterioration of symptoms or developing new symptoms, strains in other relationships, social stigma, and therapy dependence.[178] Some techniques or therapists may carry more risks than others, and some client characteristics may make them more vulnerable.[176] Side-effects from properly conducted therapy should be distinguished from harms caused by malpractice.[178]
General critiques[edit]
Some critics are skeptical of the healing power of psychotherapeutic relationships.[179][180][181] Some dismiss psychotherapy altogether in the sense of a scientific discipline requiring professional practitioners,[182] instead favoring either nonprofessional help[182] or biomedical treatments.[183] Others have pointed out ways in which the values and techniques of therapists can be harmful as well as helpful to clients (or indirectly to other people in a client's life).[184][185][186]
Many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, healthy exercise, research, and independent coping—all present considerable value. Critics note that humans have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems and finding solutions to life problems long before the advent of psychotherapy.[187]
On the other hand, some argue psychotherapy is under-utilized and under-researched by contemporary psychiatry despite offering more promise than stagnant medication development. In 2015, the US National Institute of Mental Health allocated only 5.4% of its budget to new clinical trials of psychotherapies (medication trials are largely funded by pharmaceutical companies), despite plentiful evidence they can work and that patients are more likely to prefer them.[188]
Further critiques have emerged from feminist, constructionist and discourse-analytical sources.[189][190][191] Key to these is the issue of power.[190][192] In this regard there is a concern that clients are persuaded—both inside and outside the consulting room—to understand themselves and their difficulties in ways that are consistent with therapeutic ideas.[180][190] This means that alternative ideas (e.g., feminist,[193] economic,[194] spiritual[195]) are sometimes implicitly undermined.[196] Critics suggest that we idealize the situation when we think of therapy only as a helping relationship—arguing instead that it is fundamentally a political practice, in that some cultural ideas and practices are supported while others are undermined or disqualified, and that while it is seldom intended, the therapist–client relationship always participates in society's power relations and political dynamics.[180][197][198] A noted academic who espoused this criticism was Michel Foucault.[199][200][201]