Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II
Under the reign of Philip II (359–336 BC), the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, initially at the periphery of classical Greek affairs, came to dominate Ancient Greece in the span of just 25 years, largely thanks to the character and policies of its king.[1] In addition to utilising effective diplomacy and marriage alliances to achieve his political aims, Philip II was responsible for reforming the ancient Macedonian army into an effective fighting force. The Macedonian phalanx became the hallmark of the Macedonian army during his reign and the subsequent Hellenistic period. His army and engineers also made extensive use of siege engines. Chief among Philip's Thracian enemies was the ruler Kersebleptes, who may have coordinated a temporary alliance with Athens. In a series of campaigns stretching from 356 to 340 BC, Philip II managed to ultimately subjugate Kersebleptes as a tributary vassal, conquering much of Thrace in the process. Philip II also fought against the Illyrian king Bardylis, who threatened Macedonia proper, and against Grabos II and Pleuratus in Illyria (centred in modern-day Albania). In his newly conquered territories, he founded new cities such as Philippi, Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv, Bulgaria), Herakleia Sintike (Pirin Macedonia, Bulgaria), and Herakleia Lynkestis (modern Bitola, North Macedonia).
Philip II eventually campaigned against the city-state of Athens and her allies in the Aegean region, as well as Thebes after the decline of its hegemony in mainland Greece. In the defence of the Amphictyonic League of Delphi and in conjunction with the Thessalian League, Macedonia became a key player in the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC), defeating the Phocians, commanded by Onomarchus, at the Battle of Crocus Field in 352 BC. While poised to launch a direct assault on Athens in 346 BC, the Macedonian king was met with an Athenian embassy that arranged a peace treaty known as the Peace of Philocrates. As a result, Macedonia and Athens became allies, yet Athens was forced to relinquish its claims to the city of Amphipolis (in modern-day Central Macedonia).
The Peace of Philocrates eventually broke down as hostilities reignited between Athens and Macedonia. Demosthenes, an Athenian statesman who was partially responsible for engineering the peace treaty, delivered a series of speeches encouraging his fellow Athenians to oppose Philip II. The Macedonian hegemony over Greece was secured by their victory over a Greek coalition army led by Athens and Thebes, at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. In the aftermath the federation of Greek states known as the League of Corinth was established, which brought these former Greek adversaries and others into a formal alliance with Macedonia. The League of Corinth elected Philip as strategos (i.e. commander-in-chief) for a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. However, Philip was assassinated before he could begin the campaign, a task that instead fell to his son and successor, Alexander the Great.
Conquest in the North (357–353 BC)[edit]
Amphipolis (357 BC)[edit]
Philip's next aim was to secure Macedon's eastern flank, which bordered Thrace, and in particular the city of Amphipolis.[46] Amphipolis was a major strategic point, situated on the Strymon River, where it controlled the only crossing point on the lower reaches of the river, and therefore access to and from Thrace. Eastwards expansion of his kingdom therefore required that Philip control Amphipolis.[47] The Athenians had founded a colony there in the previous century,[48] only to lose control of it during the Peloponnesian War.[26] The Athenians were very keen to recover Amphipolis, partly because of its history, although the Amphipolitans were not inclined to return to Athenian control.[49] However, the main reasons were because of the location of Amphipolis close to forests needed for shipbuilding, and because it controlled the gold and silver mines of Mount Pangaion.[49][50] The importance of Amphipolis to the Athenians during this period cannot be overstated; "their longing for it was constant and extreme".[49]
Thrace (353–352 BC)[edit]
Most historians agree that Philip campaigned in Thrace in 353 BC, but what exactly he achieved is a matter of some confusion. As has been discussed, some, including Cawkwell and Sealey, place the Maroneia and Abdera campaign in 353 BC.[58][70] Others suggest that, in a campaign whose details are essentially unknown, Philip defeated the central Thracian king, Amadokos, reducing him to the status of subject ally.[57] Since the Maroneia and Abdera campaign took place in Amadokos's territory, it seems likely that, under either chronology, Philip campaigned against Amadokos in 353 BC.
In the early part of 352 BC several key events had occurred in, or around Thrace which challenged Philip's influence in the region.[108][113] The Athenian general Chares captured Sestos, on the Thracian Chersonese early in the year, probably taking the city from Kersebleptes.[108] The Athenians had a long-standing interest in the Chersonese for strategic reasons, and it had formed a significant part of their 'Empire' in the 5th century BC.[114] Firstly, Athens depended largely on the import of grain from the Crimea for her food supply; controlling the Chersonese helped to ensure that supplies could safely pass through the Hellespont.[114] Secondly, the Chersonese was used as a place to settle the excess citizenry of Athens, usually in the form of cleruchies, colonies which were not politically independent of the mother city.[114] After the capture of Sestos, Kersebleptes, who up until now had resisted Athenian attempts to reclaim the Chersonese, now came to terms with Athens. He was probably now worried about Philip's influence in the region, and thus sought to ally with the Athenians, giving them control of all the cities of the Chersonese except Cardia.[70][108] Furthermore, the Chalkidian League also seems to have turned against Philip in 352 BC, presumably also concerned by his designs on their territory, and sought peace with Athens.[108][113]
Philip probably also campaigned in Thrace in late 352 BC, possibly after returning to Macedon from Thessaly.[58][70][113] At this point, if not before, Philip defeated Amadokos and subjugated him, and possibly also expelled Cetriporis from his client kingship.[58] During the campaign, Philip's army reached deep into Kersebleptes' territory and laid siege to the fortress of Heraion Teichos located somewhere near Perinthos, on the coast of the Propontis (although Buckler places this siege in 353 BC).[58][70][115] On learning of the siege, the Athenians voted to dispatch 40 triremes to oppose Philip. However, they then heard that Philip had died (or had been taken ill), so the relief mission never actually sailed.[70] It seems clear that Philip did fall ill during the campaign, but exactly how the campaign ended is unclear.[58][70] It was probably at this time that Philip took Kersebleptes' son as a hostage to Pella, effectively ending Kersebleptes' freedom of action.[58]
Thrace (342–340 BC)[edit]
In approximately June 342 BC, Philip set off on what must have been a long-planned expedition into Thrace.[157] The campaign was to last for two years, but other than that his forces were large, and that he fought several battles, the ancient sources contain very few details.[157] Undoubtedly Philip's primary aim was to depose Kersebleptes, who according to Diodorus had been causing problems for the Greeks on the Chersonese, once and for all.[144][158] Philip ended the campaign by marrying Meda of Odessos, daughter of a king of the Getae, which has been taken to suggest that Philip campaigned not just in Thrace, but in the valley of the Hebrus, and north of the Great Balkan range of mountains, near the Danube.[157][158]
During the campaign, Philip founded several cities, most notably Philippopolis on the site of the old Thracian fort of Eumolpia (modern Plovdiv, Bulgaria).[157] A tithe was levied on the Thracians, and the new post of "general in charge of Thrace" may have been established at this time, effectively governor of a new Macedonian province of Thrace.[157][158] To pacify the north of this region, the Thracians were left mostly independent, under their own kings, who were subject to Philip.[157] Cawkwell rates this extended campaign as one of Philip's major achievements, given the terrain and severe winter conditions.[157]
Philip's final campaigns (339–338 BC)[edit]
Scythia[edit]
As a prelude to his planned campaign in Greece, Philip went on campaign in the winter of 339 BC, against the Scythians living south of the Danube, near the river's mouth (in Dobruja).[176] He defeated them in battle, taking many captive, and built a statue of Heracles to commemorate his victory.[176] He then marched through the territory of the Triballi in a demonstration of force, which probably lay upstream along the course of the Danube.[176] During a skirmish, he was severely wounded in the leg when a spear passed through it and killed the horse he was riding.[176] Recovering from this wound may have delayed Philip's campaign in Greece, since he did not set off until the autumn of 339 BC.[176]
Fourth Sacred War[edit]
Philip's campaign in Greece became linked with a new, fourth, sacred war. The citizens of Amphissa in Ozolian Locris had begun cultivating land sacred to Apollo on the Crisaean plain south of Delphi; after some internal bickering the Amphictyonic council decided to declare a sacred war against Amphissa.[177] A Thessalian delegate proposed that Philip should be made leader of the Amphictyonic forces, which therefore gave Philip a pretext to campaign in Greece; it is, however, probable that Philip would have gone ahead with his campaign anyway.[177]
Notes[edit]
^ a: "... The victory over Bardylis made him an attractive ally to the Epirotes, who too had suffered at the Illyrians' hands ..."[39]
^ b: Although Pausanias, the 2nd century AD geographer, claimed that Sparta was expelled from the Amphictyonic council for her part in the Sacred War, inscriptions at Delphi show that this was not the case.[145]
^ c: Ever since the murder, there have been many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.[206]
^ d: For a critical review of scholars defending one view or the others, A. J. Graham provides a recapitulation during the analysis of Thasos and Portus in Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece, explaining both Rubensohn thesis, Pouilloux objections and the indirect support for each one.[168]
^ e: Philip married Phila of Elimeia, the sister of the last independent king of Elimea. Machatas of Elimeia, brother of Phila, is associated with the Machatas described by Plutarch as punished by Philip as part of his court.[62][63] Similarly, Aeropus of Lyncestis appears as a commander in Cheronea and was exiled by Philip. His sons, Arrhabaeus, Heromenes and Alexander Lyncestes, also appear in Philip's court and during the politics surrounding his murder. Carney provided a detailed analysis of the impact of Macedonian annexation in Lyncestis when discussing the figure of Alexander Lyncestes[64]