History of US Cultural Program[edit]
One of the earliest cultural exchanges to be considered part of U.S. Public Diplomacy occurred when Nelson Rockefeller, named coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Affairs for the American Republics, encouraged journalists from Latin America to visit the United States in 1940 as part of the exchange of programs program with Latin America.[3] Leading musicians from the region were subsequently invited during the decade to CBS's broadcasting studios in New York City in order to perform on the Viva America radio program for the State Department's Office for Coordination of Commercial and Cultural Relations (OCCCRBAR) and the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs.[4][5][6]
Following World War II, Senator J. William Fulbright introduced legislation for what would become the Fulbright Program in 1946. One of the most significant moments in the formalization of exchange programs as tools of American Foreign Policy came under U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower. In 1955, Eisenhower met with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in Geneva. Soon after this meeting, Eisenhower said, "The subject that took most of my attention was the possibility of increased visits overseas by the citizens of one country into the territory of the other nation. In this subject there was the fullest possible agreement between the West and the Soviet Union".[7]
In 1959, the exchange programs aspect of the State Department was separated from the Public Affairs Bureau to form the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Relations.[8] In 1961, Congress passed the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act (also known as Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961), mandating an increase in governmental programs to enhance mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries.[9]
Cold War[edit]
Exchange Programs from the United States played a vital role during the Cold War with the Soviet Union. George Kennan, a key figure in the Cold War known as the father of containment, viewed culture as a way to decrease negative sentiments between countries. Examples of cultural exchange programs between the United States and the Soviet Union include theater, museum, and opera expositions. Although not political on the surface, cultural exchanges like these helped alleviate tensions and "humanize" the West in the eyes of the Soviets who witnessed them.[10]
In addition to Americans visiting the Soviet Union, approximately 50,000 Soviet citizens visited the United States, including writers, politicians, musicians, and other arts figures. Oleg Kalugin, former KGB general and head of KGB operations in the United States, noted that these exchange programs were a "Trojan Horse", because they "eroded" the Soviet system.[11]
Trends[edit]
Following 9/11, there has been an increase in U.S. Government support for cultural exchange programs in the Middle East. In 2003, for example, 25% of governmental funding for cultural exchange programs was targeted at Arab and Muslim countries.[17] This increase in targeted spending led to the creation of the Partnership for Learning (P4L), which "provides scholarships for secondary school students from countries with significant Muslim populations to spend up to one academic year in the United States. The program is vital to expanding communication between the people of the U.S. and the partner countries in the interest of promoting mutual understanding and respect".[18]