Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as and heavy metals in the Amur River have devastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.^[60]

phenols

in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area, now has unacceptable levels of heavy metals in its sediment and fish.

Wabamun Lake

Acute and chronic events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.^{[61][62][63][64][65]}

pollution

Due to their high position in the and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers and children limit their intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.^[66]

food chain

Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating heavy metals or toxins in their tissues. For example, have a remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including polluted waters.^[67] The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful management if they are to be used as a food.^[68][69]

mitten crabs

On the east coast of the , the availability of bay scallops has been greatly diminished by the overfishing of sharks in the area. A variety of sharks have, until recently, fed on rays, which are a main predator of bay scallops. With the shark population reduced, in some places almost totally, the rays have been free to dine on scallops to the point of greatly decreasing their numbers.

United States

once-flourishing oyster populations historically filtered the estuary's entire water volume of excess nutrients every three or four days. Today that process takes almost a year,^[84] and sediment, nutrients, and algae can cause problems in local waters. Oysters filter these pollutants, and either eat them or shape them into small packets that are deposited on the bottom where they are harmless.

Chesapeake Bay's

The Australian government alleged in 2006 that illegally overfished southern bluefin tuna by taking 12,000 to 20,000 tonnes per year instead of their agreed 6,000 tonnes; the value of such overfishing would be as much as US$2 billion. Such overfishing has resulted in severe damage to stocks. "Japan's huge appetite for tuna will take the most sought-after stocks to the brink of commercial extinction unless fisheries agree on more rigid quotas" stated the WWF.^[85][86] Japan disputes this figure, but acknowledges that some overfishing has occurred in the past.^[87]

Japan

Jackson, Jeremy B C et al. (2001) Science 293:629-638.

Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems

Sharks, rays, and chimaeras: are deep water species, which makes them difficult to study in the wild. Not a lot is known about their ecology and population status. Much of what is currently known is from their capture in nets from both targeted and accidental catch. Many of these slow growing species are not recovering from overfishing by shark fisheries around the world.

pelagic

Groupers: Major threats are overfishing, particularly the uncontrolled fishing of small juveniles and spawning adults.

: The primary threats to corals are bleaching and disease which has been linked to an increase in sea temperatures. Other threats include coastal development, coral extraction, sedimentation and pollution. The coral triangle (Indo-Malay-Philippine archipelago) region has the highest number of reef-building coral species in threatened category as well as the highest coral species diversity. The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on many marine species, as well as on people that depend on reef resources for their livelihoods.

Coral reefs

Marine mammals: include , dolphins, porpoises, seals, sea lions, walruses, sea otter, marine otter, manatees, dugong and the polar bear. Major threats include entanglement in ghost nets, targeted harvesting, noise pollution from military and seismic sonar, and boat strikes. Other threats are water pollution, habitat loss from coastal development, loss of food sources due to the collapse of fisheries, and climate change.

whales

Seabirds: Major threats include and gillnets, oil spills, and predation by rodents and cats in their breeding grounds. Other threats are habitat loss and degradation from coastal development, logging and pollution.

longline fisheries

Marine turtles: Marine turtles lay their eggs on beaches, and are subject to threats such as coastal development, sand mining, and predators, including humans who collect their eggs for food in many parts of the world. At sea, marine turtles can be targeted by small scale , or become bycatch during longline and trawling activities, or become entangled in ghost nets or struck by boats.

subsistence fisheries

Fishing by country

List of countries by seafood consumption

List of harvested aquatic animals by weight

Ocean fisheries

Population dynamics of fisheries

World fish production

International Nitrogen Initiative:

Web site

(2000) World Resources Institute.

Population Distribution within 100 km of Coastlines

: Carbon cycle science

NOAA

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