Anti-Americanism
Anti-Americanism (also called anti-American sentiment and Americanophobia) is a term that can describe several sentiments and positions including opposition to, fear of, distrust of, prejudice against or hatred toward the United States, its government, its foreign policy, or Americans in general.[1] Anti-Americanism can be contrasted with pro-Americanism, which refers to support, love, or admiration for the United States.
Political scientist Brendon O'Connor at the United States Studies Centre in Australia suggests that "anti-Americanism" cannot be isolated as a consistent phenomenon, since the term originated as a rough composite of stereotypes, prejudices, and criticisms which evolved into more politically-based criticisms. French scholar Marie-France Toinet says that use of the term "anti-Americanism" is "only fully justified if it implies systematic opposition – a sort of allergic reaction – to America as a whole."[2] Some, such as Noam Chomsky and Nancy Snow, have argued that the application of the term "anti-American" to other countries or their populations is 'nonsensical', as it implies that disliking the American government or its policies is socially undesirable or even comparable to a crime.[3][4] In this regard, the term has been likened to the propagandistic usage of the term "anti-Sovietism" in the USSR.[3]
Discussions on anti-Americanism have in most cases lacked a precise explanation of what the sentiment entails (other than a general disfavor), which has led the term to be used broadly and in an impressionistic manner, resulting in the inexact impressions of the many expressions described as anti-American.[5] Author and expatriate William Russell Melton argues that criticism largely originates from the perception that the U.S. wants to act as a "world policeman".[6]
Negative or critical views of the United States or its influence have been widespread in Russia, China, Serbia,[7] Pakistan,[8] Bosnia and Herzegovina,[9] Belarus,[10] and the Greater Middle East,[11][12] but remain low in Israel, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Korea, Vietnam,[13] the Philippines, and certain countries in central and eastern Europe.[11] In Western Europe, anti-Americanism is mainly present in the United Kingdom and France.[14][15] Anti-American sentiment (though action is uncommon) is prevalent in Canada.
Anti-Americanism has also been identified with the term Americanophobia,[16][17][18] which Merriam-Webster defines as "hatred of the U.S. or American culture".[19][20]
Etymology
In the online Oxford Dictionaries, the term "anti-Americanism" is defined as "Hostility to the interests of the United States".[21]
In the first edition of Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) the term "anti-American" was defined as "opposed to America, or to the true interests or government of the United States; opposed to the revolution in America".[22]
In France the use of the noun form antiaméricanisme has been cataloged from 1948,[23] entering ordinary political language in the 1950s.[24]
Rationale
Bradley Bowman, a former professor at the United States Military Academy, argues that United States military facilities overseas and the forces stationed there serve as a "major catalyst for anti-Americanism and radicalization." Other studies have found a link between the presence of the US bases and al-Qaeda recruitment. These bases are often cited by opponents of repressive governments to provoke anger, protest, and nationalistic fervor against the ruling class and the United States. This in turn, according to JoAnn Chirico, raises concerns in Washington that a democratic transition could lead to the closure of bases, which often encourages the United States to extend its support for authoritarian leaders. This study suggests that the outcome could be an intensifying cycle of protest and repression supported by the United States.[25] In 1958, Eisenhower discussed with his staff what he described as a "campaign of hatred against us" in the Arab world, "not by the governments but by the people." The United States National Security Council, concluded that was due to a perception that the U.S. supports corrupt and brutal governments and opposes political and economic development "to protect its interest in Near East oil". The Wall Street Journal reached a similar conclusion after surveying the views of wealthy and Western Muslims after September 11 attacks.[26] In this vein, the head of the Council of Foreign Relations terrorism program believes that the American support for repressive regimes such as Egypt and Saudi Arabia is undoubtedly a major factor in anti-American sentiment in the Arab world.[27]