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Copernican heliocentrism

Copernican heliocentrism is the astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. This model positioned the Sun at the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in circular paths, modified by epicycles, and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model displaced the geocentric model of Ptolemy that had prevailed for centuries, which had placed Earth at the center of the Universe.

Although he had circulated an outline of his own heliocentric theory to colleagues sometime before 1514, he did not decide to publish it until he was urged to do so later by his pupil Rheticus. Copernicus's challenge was to present a practical alternative to the Ptolemaic model by more elegantly and accurately determining the length of a solar year while preserving the metaphysical implications of a mathematically ordered cosmos. Thus, his heliocentric model retained several of the Ptolemaic elements, causing inaccuracies, such as the planets' circular orbits, epicycles, and uniform speeds,[1] while at the same time using ideas such as:

Using detailed observations by , Kepler discovered Mars's orbit was an ellipse with the Sun at one focus and its speed varied with its distance to the Sun. This discovery was detailed in his 1609 book Astronomia nova along with the claim all planets had elliptical orbits and non-uniform motion, stating "And finally... the sun itself... will melt all this Ptolemaic apparatus like butter".[44]

Tycho Brahe

Using the newly invented , in 1610 Galileo discovered the four large moons of Jupiter (evidence that the Solar System contained bodies that did not orbit Earth), the phases of Venus (more observational evidence not properly explained by the Ptolemaic theory) and the rotation of the Sun about a fixed axis[45] as indicated by the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots;

telescope

With a telescope, saw the phases of Mercury in 1639;

Giovanni Zupi

Isaac Newton in 1687 proposed and the inverse-square law of gravitational attraction to explain Kepler's elliptical planetary orbits.

universal gravity

The Copernican Revolution, a paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having Earth as a stationary body at the center of the universe, to the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System, spanned over a century, beginning with the publication of Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and ending with the work of Isaac Newton. While not warmly received by his contemporaries, his model did have a large influence on later scientists such as Galileo and Johannes Kepler, who adopted, championed and (especially in Kepler's case) sought to improve it. However, in the years following publication of de Revolutionibus, for leading astronomers such as Erasmus Reinhold, the key attraction of Copernicus's ideas was that they reinstated the idea of uniform circular motion for the planets.[43]


During the 17th century, several further discoveries eventually led to the wider acceptance of heliocentrism:

Copernican principle

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Heliocentric Pantheon