Counseling psychology
Counseling psychology is a psychological specialty that began with a focus on vocational counseling, but later moved its emphasis to adjustment counseling,[1] and then expanded to cover all normal psychology psychotherapy. There are many subcategories for counseling psychology, such as marriage and family counseling, rehabilitation counseling, clinical mental health counseling, educational counseling, etc. In each setting, they are all required to follow the same guidelines.
"Counseling psychologist" redirects here. For the academic journal, see The Counseling Psychologist.The Society for Counseling Psychology in the United States says:
History[edit]
Before the end of World War II[edit]
Before World War II, qualified psychologists typically pursued science, rather than the direct treatment of patients.[3] This task was the domain of psychiatrists who had both a medical degree and psychological training.
In 1896, the first psychological patient clinic was opened at the University of Pennsylvania by psychologist Lightner Witmer. He coined the term clinical psychology to describe his work. In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology focused on children's psychological assessment, with little attention given to treatment or adults.[3]
The Vocation Bureau was established in Boston in 1908 by Frank Parsons. Parsons coined the term vocational guidance that year, and the Bureau soon became the concept's national body. The Bureau supported the work of vocational counselors, and successfully advocated for a large number of them to be appointed by Boston schools.[4] Parson's influential book Choosing a Vocation was published in 1909.[5] The Boston YMCA offered the first vocational guidance training.[4]
Building on the work of the Bureau, the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) was founded in 1913.
The National Social Workers' Exchange began in 1917, and in 1921 expanded its scope and became the American Association of Social Workers.[6]
Abraham and Hannah Stone began a marriage consultation centre in New York in 1929.[7] The American Institute for Family Relations (AIFR) was established by Paul Popenoe in Los Angeles in 1930.[7] Emily Mudd founded the Marriage Council of Philadelphia in 1932.[8] This kind of organisation was first found in Germany, and had grown through parts of Europe.[7]
During World War II, the term counseling was used by American psychologist Carl Rogers to describe therapy provided by psychologists.[9] In 1942, Rogers published the book Counseling and Psychotherapy. In that book's introduction he said the terms "counselling" and "psychotherapy" were equivalents, the main difference being that different professions tended to use one term or the other. He noted that people who did this work might call themselves "a psychologist, a college counselor, a marital adviser, a psychiatrist, a social worker, a high-school guidance counselor, an industrial personnel worker, or [use] some other name."[10]
1942 also saw the establishment of the American Association of Marriage Counselors (AAMC). The Stones and Mudd took part in this.[7][8]
A great adjustment[edit]
The end of World War II in 1945 saw many combatants return home. Over 3.2 million American veterans applied for training under the GI Bill, creating a strong need for vocational and personal adjustment counseling at the US Veterans Administration (VA).[3] That year, Rogers was invited to set up a counseling center at the University of Chicago.
It was also at this time that clinical psychologists began offering therapy to adults in large numbers, with many employed by the VA.[3]
The end of the war also saw the American Psychological Association establish Divisions, providing interest groups for its members to join. Divisions 11 and 12 of were formed in 1945, with the two merging in 1946 to become the "Division of Clinical and Abnormal Psychology" (as Division 12).
Division 17 of the APA was formed in 1946[11] as the "Division of Personnel and Guidance Psychologists".[12]
Also in 1946, Connecticut became the first US state to require psychologists to be licensed. The last to do so was Missouri in 1977.[13]
In 1947, Rogers was elected president of the APA.[14]
The Marriage Council of Philadelphia started the first US marriage counsellor training program in 1948, training Navy chaplains.[8]
It was suggested that "personal adjustment counseling is actually a psychotherapeutic supplement to vocational counseling for problems not serious enough to require psychiatric treatments," in 1949.[15]
More than 500 people had joined Division 17 in 1949. Around half of these provided guidance (or supervised it) in an educational setting. Approximately 20% guided people in the VA. 40% of Division 17 members were also members of the NVGA.[12]
Counseling psychology and other counseling[edit]
In 1951, the APA's Division 17 became the "Division for Counseling Psychology".[16] This body united psychologists, students and professionals who were dedicated to promote education and training, practice, scientific investigation, diversity and public interest in the field of counseling psychology.[17] (It would later become known as the "Society for Counseling Psychology").
In 1952 the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) was founded, merging the NVGA, the National Association of Guidance and Counselor Trainers (NAGCT), the Student Personnel Association for Teacher Education (SPATE), and the American College Personnel Association (ACPA).[18]
Starting in the early 1950s, the first counseling psychology PhD programs were at the University of Minnesota; Ohio State University; University of Maryland, College Park; University of Missouri; Teachers College, Columbia University; and University of Texas at Austin.[19][20]
At times, counseling psychologists with qualifications from university education departments had difficulty being registered as psychologists by US states, due to difficulty proving that their study was sufficiently psychological in nature.[21]
In 1955, the National Association of Social Workers was established through the consolidation of seven groups including the American Association of Social Workers and the National Association of School Social Workers.[22]
In 1960, the AIFR in Los Angeles was described "the world's largest and best known marriage-counseling center," with a staff of seventy.[23] By that year, the institute had given training to over 300 marriage counselors and shorter courses around the US to over 1500 other people.[24]
The US National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) began in 1969.[25]
The AAMC became the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT) in 1974.[26]
In 1976, the American Mental Health Counselors Association (AMHCA) was founded to represent mental health counselors who did not qualify for APA membership, and didn't fit in the college counseling focused APGA. The AMHCA became a part of the latter in 1978.[27]
Individual US states began to license counselors in the 1970s.[28] In 1981, the APGA established The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs to standardise counseling education.[29] In 1982, the APGA established an independent body, the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC), to provide a national certification system for counselors who were not qualified psychologists.[30]
The APGA changed its name in 1983 to the "American Association of Counseling and Development" (AACD), and then in 1992 to the "American Counseling Association" (ACA). (Also in 1992, the ACPA left the organisation.)
The AIFR ceased operating in the 1980s.
A 1986 study found that of APA Division 17 members, 80% did personal adjustment counseling, 71% did vocational counseling, 69% did long-term psychotherapy and 58% did family counseling. It found that "there appear to be few, if any, empirical bases on which to distinguish counseling psychologists from their colleagues in clinical psychology."[31]
In the late 1980s and 1990s, US states increasingly required the licensing of family councilors. The Association of Marital & Family Therapy Regulatory Boards[32] was established to allow for nationally harmonised accreditation.[33]
The ACA defined "counseling" in 2010 as "a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals."[34]
In 2019, the American Mental Health Counselors Association (AMHCA) separated from the ACA.[35]
As much as their practitioners did many of the same things, clinical psychology came to focus on treating abnormal psychology issues, while counseling psychology came to focus on addressing normal psychology matters.
Counseling, as overseen by the ACA and AMHCA, came to include all the subject areas listed by Rogers in 1942 that didn't require its practitioners to have psychology or psychiatry qualifications, including those that use "some other name".[36] However, while it had Divisions for family counseling and social work, other bodies would have many more members from those fields.
Many US states now require people describing themselves as counselors to be licensed by the NBCC, such counselors becoming a National Certified Counselor.[37]
Books describing the present international state of the field include the Handbook of Counseling and Psychotherapy in an International Context;[38] the International Handbook of Cross-Cultural Counseling;[39] and Counseling Around the World: An International Handbook.[40] Taken together these volumes trace the global history of the field, explore divergent philosophical assumptions, counseling theories, processes, and trends in different countries, and review a variety of global counselor education programs. Moreover, traditional and indigenous treatment and healing methods that may predate modern counseling methods by hundreds of years remain of significance in many non-Western and Western countries.[38][41][42]
Educational Requirements[edit]
To be a counseling psychologist in the United States, it is first necessary to obtain a Bachelor's degree in psychology, sociology, anthropology, or a different degree within the realm of human services, from a four-year university.[43] After acquiring a Bachelor’s, obtaining a Master's degree is the next requirement. While prerequisites for a Master's degree vary from program to program, a person can become a counselor after receiving their Master’s. Although, it is possible to obtain a Master’s and Doctorate degree simultaneously if the program you are enrolled in has that option. A doctorate degree is another term for PhD. However, within the field of psychology and counseling, there is also a PsyD.[44] A PsyD is Doctor of Psychology degree that emphasizes everyday tasks and clinical training. It also prepares graduates to directly care for patients. A PhD is a Philosophy of Doctorate degree that is research-based and focuses on statistics.[45] It is necessary to attend an accredited program to receive a Doctorate. An accredited program means that it is approved by the APA. The APA in the United States ensures that the program has defined training goals that follow the professional and scientific guidelines required for a successful, ethical, and skillful psychology program.[46]
Salary[edit]
In 2022, the median salary for counseling psychologists in the United States was $86,938 to $90,130.[47][48] According to O*NET, the estimated hourly wage is $43.33. The expected growth rate is projected to be faster than average between the years of 2021 to 2031. There are assumed to be over 5000 job openings during then.[49]
Training and supervision[edit]
Professional training process[edit]
Counseling psychologists are trained in graduate programs. Almost all programs grant a PhD, but a few grant a Psy.D. or Ed.D. Most doctoral programs take 5–6 years to complete. Graduate work in counseling psychology includes coursework in general psychology and statistics, counseling practice, and research.[84] Students must complete an original dissertation at the end of their graduate training. Students must also complete a one-year full-time internship at an accredited site before earning their doctorate. In order to be licensed to practice, counseling psychologists must gain clinical experience under supervision, and pass a standardized exam.
Training models and research[edit]
Counseling psychology includes the study and practice of counselor training and counselor supervision. As researchers, counseling psychologists may investigate what makes training and supervision effective. As practitioners, counseling psychologists may supervise and train a variety of clinicians. Counselor training tends to occur in formal classes and training programs. Part of counselor training may involve counseling clients under the supervision of a licensed clinician. Supervision can also occur between licensed clinicians, as a way to improve clinicians' quality of work and competence with various types of counseling clients.
As the field of counseling psychology formed in the mid-20th century, initial training models included Robert Carkuff's human relations training model,[85] Norman Kagan's Interpersonal Process Recall,[86] and Allen Ivey's microcounseling skills.[87] Modern training models include Gerard Egan's skilled helper model,[88] and Clara E. Hill's three-stage model (exploration, insight, and action).[89] A recent analysis of studies on counselor training found that modeling, instruction, and feedback are common to most training models, and seem to have medium to large effects on trainees.[90]
Supervision models and research[edit]
Like the models of how clients and therapists interact, there are also models of the interactions between therapists and their supervisors. Edward S. Bordin proposed a model of supervision working alliance similar to his model of therapeutic working alliance. The Integrated Development Model considers the level of a client's motivation/anxiety, autonomy, and self and other awareness. The Systems Approach to Supervision views the relationship between supervisor and supervised as most important, in addition to characteristics of the supervisor's personal characteristics, counseling clients, training setting, as well as the tasks and functions of supervision. The Critical Events in Supervision model focuses on important moments that occur between the supervisor and supervised.[91]
Problems can arise in supervision and training. Questions have arisen as far as a supervisor's need for formal training to be a competent supervisor.[92] Recent research suggests that conflicting, multiple relationships can occur between supervisors and clients, such as that of the client, instructor, and clinical supervisor.[92] The occurrence of racial micro-aggression against Black clients[93] suggests potential problems with racial bias in supervision. In general, conflicts between a counselor and his or her own supervisor can arise when supervisors demonstrate disrespect, lack of support, and blaming.[91]
Effects of COVID in relation to counseling[edit]
The ongoing pandemic has caused career counselors to adjust many of their current plans with their clients. While also helping to improve their abilities by facing new and different situations. The pandemic, in the beginning, caused a significant job layoff, which messed up a lot of people's career plans. Towards the beginning of 2020, employment lost around 22.4 million individuals, a downturn of around 15%.[106] Another critical factor regarding the pandemic is that many schools shut down for a while, negatively impacting students. One such scenario is students looking for specific programs to start their masters may not have been able to with the educational shut down, which could have negatively impacted their future career path. After education started to come back online, counselors soon ran into an issue. They had to become more tech-savvy and understand how to work digitally significantly faster to help clients since the shift to an online platform.[95] While moving to a more online counseling presence can be tricky, it will lead to more positives overall. One major positive being the flexibility with obtaining the counseling has become significantly better.[107] However, while moving a portion to online telehealth, there are still cases that are better suited to in-person like addictions. There was an almost doubling of referrals regarding seeing a psychologist around 2020, 62%. When looking at psychologists, 7 out of 10 had their waitlist grow more extended, about 68%.[108] Another factor to consider is the effect Covid has played on the counselor's health. Seeing how the pandemic has affected their patients why could it not affect the counselors if not be more sever, since they are dedicating more time to helping others instead of themselves.[109] It has been noted that Counselors could be feeling overwhelmed, which can lead to many negative consequences. Hopefully, through research and information based upon prior crises, they can stay informed to take better care of themselves while helping others.
Professional journals[edit]
In the United States, the scholarly journals of the profession are the Journal of Counseling Psychology and The Counseling Psychologist. The Journal of Counseling Psychology publishes articles with, “theoretical, empirical, and methodological articles on multicultural aspects of counseling.” It also focuses on assessment, intervention, consultations, and educational requirements. It also reviews manuscripts of clients that are having problems with housing, developmental issues, and who may or may not be severely disturbed. The Journal of Counseling Psychology focuses on manuscripts that focus on emphasizing development and benefiting the well-being of people. The Counseling Psychologist is the official Publication of the Society of Counseling Psychology. It is also one of the first journals from the field. It publishes articles scholarly articles that are important for counseling psychologists because they are responsible for expanding the knowledge of counseling psychologists through debates and areas that are currently being developed, as well as new practices. [110]
These articles are different throughout the world. [111] In Australia, counseling psychology articles are published in the counseling psychology section of the Australian Psychologist. In Europe, the scholarly journals of the profession include the European Journal of Counselling Psychology (under the auspices of the European Association of Counselling Psychology) and the Counselling Psychology Review (under the auspices of the British Psychological Society). Counselling Psychology Quarterly is an international interdisciplinary publication of Routledge (part of the Taylor & Francis Group).