Katana VentraIP

Definitions of fascism

What constitutes a definition of fascism and fascist governments has been a complicated and highly disputed subject concerning the exact nature of fascism and its core tenets debated amongst historians, political scientists, and other scholars ever since Benito Mussolini first used the term in 1915. Historian Ian Kershaw once wrote that "trying to define 'fascism' is like trying to nail jelly to the wall".[1]

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#1__subtextDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#1__answer--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#1__answer--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#1__answer--2DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#1__answer--3DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#1__answer--4DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#1__answer--5DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

By encyclopedias and dictionaries[edit]

Katana VentraIP

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#0__titleDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#0__subtitleDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

Notes


Bibliography

By fascists[edit]

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#3__subtextDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#3__quote--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#3__name--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#3__company_or_position--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#3__quote--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#3__name--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#3__company_or_position--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#1__titleDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

A significant number of scholars agree that a "fascist regime" is foremost an authoritarian form of government; however, the general academic consensus also holds that not all authoritarian regimes are fascist, and more distinguishing traits are required in order for a regime to be characterized as such.[2][3]


Similarly, fascism as an ideology is also hard to define. Originally, it referred to a totalitarian political movement linked with corporatism which existed in Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. Many scholars use the word "fascism" without capitalization in a more general sense to refer to an ideology (or group of ideologies) that has been influential in many countries at various times. For this purpose, they have sought to identify what Roger Griffin calls a "fascist minimum" — that is, the minimum conditions a movement must meet in order to be considered fascist.[4]


The apocalyptic and millenarian aspects of fascism have often been subjected to study.[5][6]

By scholars[edit]

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#4__subtextDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#4__quote--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#4__name--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#4__company_or_position--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#4__quote--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#4__name--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#4__company_or_position--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

By others[edit]

Laurence W. Britt[edit]

In the Spring 2003 issue of the secular humanist magazine Free Inquiry, Laurence W. Britt, who is described as "a retired international businessperson, writer, and commentator" published "Fascism Anyone?", which included a list of 14 defining characteristics of fascism. The list has since been widely circulated in both modified and unmodified forms.[46] In a newspaper interview in 2004, Britt expanded and clarified the meaning of some of the points in his list, and discussed how they applied to the United States at that time.[47]


The headers for Britt's original list, without his sometimes extensive explanations, are:[48]

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#4__titleDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

Umberto Eco[edit]

In his 1995 essay "Ur-Fascism", cultural theorist Umberto Eco lists fourteen general properties of fascist ideology.[12] He argues that it is not possible to organise these into a coherent system, but that "it is enough that one of them be present to allow fascism to coagulate around it". He uses the term "ur-fascism" as a generic description of different historical forms of fascism. The fourteen properties are as follows:

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#2__titleDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#2__descriptionDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

Encyclopaedia Britannica[edit]

The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines fascism as a "political ideology and mass movement that dominated many parts of central, southern, and eastern Europe between 1919 and 1945 and that also had adherents in western Europe, the United States, South Africa, Japan, Latin America, and the Middle East.", adding that "Although fascist parties and movements differed significantly from one another, they had many characteristics in common, including extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy and the rule of elites, and the desire to create a Volksgemeinschaft (German: "people's community"), in which individual interests would be subordinated to the good of the nation."[7]

Holocaust Encyclopedia[edit]

The Holocaust Encyclopedia defines fascism as "a far-right political philosophy, or theory of government, that emerged in the early twentieth century. Fascism prioritizes the nation over the individual, who exists to serve the nation." and as "an ultranationalist, authoritarian political philosophy. It combines elements of nationalism, militarism, economic self-sufficiency, and totalitarianism. It opposes communism, socialism, pluralism, individual rights and equality, and democratic government."[8]

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#3__titleDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

Benito Mussolini[edit]

Benito Mussolini, who was the first to use the term for his political party in 1915, described fascism in The Doctrine of Fascism, published in 1932, as follows:[9]

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__titleDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__subtextDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__quote--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__name--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__company_or_position--0DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__quote--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__name--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__company_or_position--1DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__quote--2DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__name--2DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__company_or_position--2DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__quote--3DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__name--3DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#5__company_or_position--3DEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#6__descriptionDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

Walter Laqueur, 25 October 2006

The Origins of Fascism: Islamic Fascism, Islamophobia, Antisemitism

Authorized translation of Mussolini’s "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism" (1933)

$_$_$DEEZ_NUTS#6__titleDEEZ_NUTS$_$_$

Fascism and ideology

Palingenetic ultranationalism

(1996). Fascism: A History (1st American ed.). New York: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0713991475.

Eatwell, Roger

(1999). "Nazism as a Millennialist Movement". In Wessinger, Catherine (ed.). Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0815628095.

Ellwood, R.

Fritzsche, Peter (1990). Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany (1st printing ed.). New York: . ISBN 978-0-19-505780-5.

Oxford University Press

Goodrick–Clarke, Nicholas (2004) [1985]. The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology (reprint with new preface ed.). .

New York University Press

(2000). "Revolution from the Right: Fascism". In Parker, David (ed.). Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560–1991. London: Routledge.

Griffin, Roger

(1991). The Nature of Fascism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312071325.

Griffin, Roger

(1981) [1931]. "Chapter 3: The Social Ideal of the Reich Labour Court – A Critical Examination of the Practice of the Reich Labour Court". In Kahn-Freund, Otto; Lewis, R.; Clark, J. (eds.). Labour Law and Politics in the Weimar Republic. Social Science Research Council. pp. 108–111.

Kahn-Freund, Otto

(1944). "Natural Law, Justice and Democracy – Some Reflections on Three Types of Thinking About Law and Justice". Tulane Law Review. 19 (32): 52–53.

Kessler, Friedrich

(2005). Pour une Etude scientifique du fascisme [For a Scientific Study of Fascism] (in French). Nantes: Ars Magna Editions.

Kitsikis, Dimitri

(1998). Ἡ τρίτη ἰδεολογία καὶ ἡ Ὀρθοδοξία [The third ideology is Orthodoxy] (in Greek). Athens: Hestia Books.

Kitsikis, Dimitri

(2005). Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les origines françaises du fascisme [Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the French origins of fascism] (in French). Nantes: Ars Magna Editions.

Kitsikis, Dimitri

(1977). Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism. London: Verso, NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.

Laclau, Ernesto

(1996). Fascism: Past, Present, Future (Reprint ed.). New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195117936.

Laqueur, Walter

(1927). The Pedigree of Fascism: A Popular Essay on the Western Philosophy of Politics. London: Sheed & Ward: Sheed & Ward.

Lion, Aline

McGaughey, Ewan (2016), , TLI Think! Paper 26/2016, doi:10.2139/ssrn.2773217, S2CID 156483813

"Fascism-Lite in America (or the social idea of Donald Trump)"

(2004). The Anatomy of Fascism (1st ed.). Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4094-0.

Paxton, Robert O.

(1996). A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299148737 – via Google Books.

Payne, Stanley G.

Redles, D. (2005). Hitler's Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation. .

New York University Press

(2000). The Mass Psychology of Fascism (3rd rev. and enlarg ed.). New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 978-0374508845.

Reich, Wilhelm

Rhodes, J.M. (1980). The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution. Stanford, Calif.: , Stanford University.

Hoover Institution Press

(2000). The Apocalypse in Germany, Columbia and London. University of Missouri Press.

Vondung, Klaus

(1982) [1964]. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. ISBN 978-0-89874-444-6. Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.

Weber, Eugen

Wistrich, R. (1985). Hitler's Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy. New York: St. Martin’s Press.