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Forensic psychology

Forensic psychology is the practice of psychology applied to the law. Forensic psychology is the application of scientific knowledge and methods to help answer legal questions arising in criminal, civil, contractual, or other judicial proceedings.[1][2][3] Forensic psychology includes research on various psychology-law topics, such as jury selection, reducing systemic racism in criminal law, eyewitness testimony, evaluating competency to stand trial, or assessing military veterans for service-connected disability compensation.[4] The American Psychological Association's Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists reference several psychology subdisciplines, such as social, clinical, experimental, counseling, and neuropsychology.[5]

Training and education[edit]

Forensic psychology involves both elements of basic as well as applied work. Forensic psychologists may hold a Ph.D. or Psy.D. in clinical psychology, counseling psychology, social psychology, organizational psychology, school psychology, or experimental psychology under accredited institutions.[29] Additionally, two years of supervised experience in their field is necessary.[29] There are no specific license requirements in the United States to be a forensic psychologist, although U.S. states, territories, and the District of Columbia require licensure for psychologists in the state they intend to practice.[2] Certification specifically in forensic psychology is also available.[2]


There are 65 forensic psychology degree programs offered in the US. Average tuition cost is $9,475 in-state and $25,856 out-of-state.[30]


There is a wide range of pay for individuals in the forensic psychology field.[31] In the United States, the median annual income of clinical-forensic psychologists is $125,000 - $149,999, and the pay can range from $50,000 (entry-level) a year to more than $350,000 a year.[32]


As of 2022, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, has seen a 6% rise in psychologist and there has been 196,000 new jobs for psychologist.[33]

Types of violence risk assessments.

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Ethics in forensic psychology[edit]

The ethical recommendations and expectations outlined for forensic psychology specifically are listed in the APA's Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychology.[5] These guidelines involve reminders that forensic psychologists should value integrity, impartiality, and fairness, as well as avoid conflicts of interest when possible. These conflicts of interest may arise in situations in which the psychologist is working as a consultant to one side or another in a court case, when the psychologist is required to testify or evaluate something that collides with their own beliefs or values, or when a psychologist is faced with the decision of choosing between playing the role of an individual's evaluator or treatment provider in a case.[36] This final conflict of interest also relates to the ethical guidelines relating to having multiple relationships with clients.[5] As a standard of ethics, forensic psychologists are expected to offer a certain amount of reduced fee or pro bono services for individuals who may not be able to afford hiring a psychologist for a court case otherwise. Other ethical guidelines involve receiving informed consent from clients before communicating information regarding their treatment or evaluations, respecting and acknowledging privacy, confidentiality, and privilege among clients, remaining impartial and objective when involved in a trial, and weighing the moral and ethical costs of complying with any court orders that may conflict with professional standards.[54][55][72] Forensic Psychologists are required to work within the limitations of their competence, as determined by their education, training, supervised experiences, consultation, research, or professional experience.[73]

Consent[edit]

Consent plays a large role in Forensic Psychology. Informed consent is required for psychologists, and when services are required by law or another authority, psychologists must inform the individual of the nature of the anticipated services, including whether the services are court ordered or mandated and any limits of confidentiality, before proceeding, according to the APA ethics code 3.10(c). [74] Additionally, standard 3.10(d) stipulates that consent needs to be well documented.[74] Both the individual in question and the council that is representing them must provide their approval.[73] If the person is legally unable to give their own consent then legal counsel for that individual must be sought. The person must be informed by the Forensic Psychologist of all the various guidelines pertaining to the expected services, including the extent of confidentiality.[73]

Confidentiality in Forensic psychology[edit]

A forensic psychologist's primary responsibility is to safeguard their clients anonymity by taking appropriate measures and communicating any limitations, the client is trusting them to keep all topics discussed with them confidential.[73] Only the clients or legally authorized person's consent may be disclosed; without the clients consent, disclosure may only occur when required by law, when the psychologist utilizes the information for the clients protection or consultation, or both.[73]

Maryanne Garry conducted research on imagination inflation, and whether imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred. The study investigated whether imagining a childhood event that did not happen increased individuals confidence that it did. The results reported that participants who originally reported an event did not happen changed their mind after imagining the scenario.

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Research by Tess Neal found that while there are a lot of psychometric measuring tools that are used by psychologists in legal cases, there are little challenges to the result they present.

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Stanley Milgram conducted research on how far people would go to obey authority figure if another person was harmed in the process. How the situation influenced the individual proves as a way to draw conclusions about the individual and their upbringing.

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Applied psychology

Forensic psychiatry

Settled insanity

Competency evaluation (law)

List of United States Supreme Court cases involving mental health

Media psychology

Medical jurisprudence

Adler, J. R. (Ed.). (2004). Forensic Psychology: Concepts, debates and practice. Cullompton: Willan.

Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (1999). History of Forensic Psychology. In A. K. Hess & (Eds.), Handbook of Forensic Psychology (2nd ed., ). London: John Wiley and Sons.

Irving B. Weiner

Blackburn, Ronald (February 1996). "What is forensic psychology?". Legal and Criminological Psychology. 1 (1): 3–16. :10.1111/j.2044-8333.1996.tb00304.x.

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Dalby, J. T. (1997) Applications of Psychology in the Law Practice: A guide to relevant issues, practices and theories. Chicago: American Bar Association.  0-8493-0811-9

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Davis, J. A. (2001). Stalking crimes and victim protection. CRC Press. 538 pages.  0-8493-0811-9. (hbk.)

ISBN

Duntley, Joshua D.; Shackelford, Todd K. (September 2004). "Toward an evolutionary forensic psychology". Biodemography and Social Biology. 51 (3–4): 161–165. :10.1080/19485565.2004.9989092. PMID 17019829. S2CID 19646654.

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Gudjonsson, Gisli (September 1991). "Forensic psychology: The first century". The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry. 2 (2): 129–131. :10.1080/09585189108407641.

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and Lionel Haward: Forensic Psychology. A guide to practice. (1998) ISBN 0-415-13291-6 (pbk.), ISBN 0-415-13290-8 (hbk.)

G.H. Gudjonsson

Jones, Lisa M.; Cross, Theodore P.; Walsh, Wendy A.; Simone, Monique (July 2005). "Criminal Investigations of Child Abuse: The Research Behind 'Best Practices'". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 6 (3): 254–268. :10.1177/1524838005277440. PMID 16237158. S2CID 33552221.

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Melton, G. B., Petrila, J., Poythress, N. G., Otto, R. K., Mossman, D., & Condie, L. O. (2017). Psychological evaluations for the courts: A handbook for mental health professionals and lawyers (4th ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.  9781462532667

ISBN

Neal, Tess M.S.; Martire, Kristy A.; Johan, Jennifer L.; Mathers, Elizabeth M.; Otto, Randy K. (18 October 2022). . Annual Review of Law and Social Science. 18 (1): 169–192. doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-050420-010148. S2CID 250658922.

"The Law Meets Psychological Expertise: Eight Best Practices to Improve Forensic Psychological Assessment"

Ogloff, J. R. P., & Finkelman, D. (1999). Psychology and Law: An Overview. In , S. D. Hart, & J. R. P. Ogloff (Eds.), Psychology and Law the State of the Discipline . New York: Springer. ISBN 0-306-45950-7

R. Roesch

O'Mahony, B. (2013). So, You Want to Be a Forensic Psychologist? Create Space.  9781482011814

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Ribner, N.G.(2002). Handbook of Juvenile Forensic Psychology. Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0787959480

California School of Professional Psychology

Roesch, R., & Zapf, P. A. (Eds.). (2012). Forensic assessments in criminal and civil law: A handbook for lawyers. NY: Oxford University Press.  9780199766857

ISBN

Rogers, R. (Ed.) (2008). Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.  9781462507351

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Board-certified forensic experts, continuing education.

American Academy of Forensic Psychology

Board certification and other information.

American Board of Forensic Psychology

American Psychology – Law Society

Australian and New Zealand Association of Psychiatry, Psychology and Law

European Association of Psychology and Law

– resources and fact sheets on Forensic Psychology

European Association of Psychology and Law Student Society