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Greek genocide

The Greek genocide[4][5][6][7][A 1] (Greek: Γενοκτονία των Ελλήνων, romanizedGenoktonía ton Ellínon), which included the Pontic genocide, was the systematic killing of the Christian Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia which was carried out mainly during World War I and its aftermath (1914–1922) on the basis of their religion and ethnicity.[13] It was perpetrated by the government of the Ottoman Empire led by the Three Pashas and by the Government of the Grand National Assembly led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,[1] against the indigenous Greek population of the Empire. The genocide included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches through the Syrian Desert,[14] expulsions, summary executions, and the destruction of Eastern Orthodox cultural, historical, and religious monuments.[15] Several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period.[16] Most of the refugees and survivors fled to Greece (adding over a quarter to the prior population of Greece).[17] Some, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire.

Not to be confused with Greek Operation of the NKVD.

Greek genocide

1913–1923[1]

Greek population, particularly from Pontus, Cappadocia, Ionia and Eastern Thrace

300,000–900,000[2][3] (see casualties section below)

By late 1922, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor had either fled or had been killed.[18] Those remaining were transferred to Greece under the terms of the later 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, which formalized the exodus and barred the return of the refugees. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Armenians, and some scholars and organizations have recognized these events as part of the same genocidal policy.[19][7][20][6][21]


The Allies of World War I condemned the Ottoman government–sponsored massacres. In 2007, the International Association of Genocide Scholars passed a resolution recognising the Ottoman campaign against its Christian minorities, including the Greeks, as genocide.[7] Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the Ottoman campaign against these Christian minorities as genocide, as have the national legislatures of Greece,[22][23][5] Cyprus,[24] the United States,[25][26][27][28] Sweden,[29][30] Armenia,[31] the Netherlands,[32][33] Germany,[34][35] Austria[36][37] and the Czech Republic.[38][39][40]

Aftermath

Article 142 of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, prepared after the first World War, called the wartime Turkish regime "terrorist" and contained provisions "to repair so far as possible the wrongs inflicted on individuals in the course of the massacres perpetrated in Turkey during the war."[131] The Treaty of Sèvres was never ratified by the Turkish government and ultimately was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne. That treaty was accompanied by a "Declaration of Amnesty", without containing any provision in respect to punishment of war crimes.[132]


In 1923, a population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulted in a near-complete ending of the Greek ethnic presence in Turkey and a similar ending of the Turkish ethnic presence in much of Greece. According to the Greek census of 1928, 1,104,216 Ottoman Greeks had reached Greece.[133] It is impossible to know exactly how many Greek inhabitants of Turkey died between 1914 and 1923, and how many ethnic Greeks of Anatolia were expelled to Greece or fled to the Soviet Union.[134] Some of the survivors and expelled took refuge in the neighboring Russian Empire (later, Soviet Union). Similar plans for a population exchange had been negotiated earlier, in 1913–1914, between Ottoman and Greek officials during the first stage of the Greek genocide but had been interrupted by the onset of World War I.[18][135]


In December 1924, The New York Times reported that 400 tonnes of human bones consigned to manufacturers were transported from Mudania to Marseille, which might be the remains of massacred victims in Asia Minor.[136]


In 1955, the Istanbul Pogrom caused most of the remaining Greek inhabitants of Istanbul to flee the country. Historian Alfred-Maurice de Zayas identifies the pogrom as a crime against humanity and he states that the flight and migration of Greeks afterwards corresponds to the "intent to destroy in whole or in part" criteria of the Genocide Convention.[137]

In contrast to the , the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 dealt with these events by making no reference or mention, and thus sealed the end of the Asia Minor Catastrophe.

Treaty of Sèvres

A subsequent peace treaty (Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship in June 1930) between Greece and Turkey. Greece made several concessions to settle all open issues between the two countries in return for peace in the region.

The , the Civil War, the Military junta and the political turmoil in Greece that followed, forced Greece to focus on its survival and other problems rather than seek recognition of these events.

Second World War

The political environment of the , in which Turkey and Greece were supposed to be allies – facing one common Communist enemy – not adversaries or competitors.

Cold War

by Thea Halo is the story of the survival, at age ten, of her mother Sano (Themia) Halo (original name Euthemia "Themia" Barytimidou, Pontic Greek: Ευθυμία Βαρυτιμίδου),[181][182] along the death march during the Greek genocide that annihilated her family. The title refers to Themia being renamed to Sano by an Arabic-speaking family who could not pronounce her Greek name, after they took her in as a servant during the Greek genocide.[183]

Not Even My Name

is an autobiography by the Greek novelist Elias Venezis that tells of his experiences during the Greek genocide on a death march into the interior from his native home in Ayvali (Greek: Kydonies, Κυδωνίες), Turkey. Of the 3000 "conscripted" into his "labour brigade" (otherwise known as Amele Taburlari or Amele Taburu) only 23 survived. The title refers to the number assigned to Elias by the Turkish army during the death march. The book was made into a movie called 1922 by Nikos Koundouros in 1978, but was banned in Greece until 1982 because of pressure from the Turkish Foreign Ministry who complained that the film would ruin Greek-Turkish relations.[184]

Number 31328

The Greek genocide is remembered in a number of modern works.

(1926), The Blight of Asia, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill

Horton, George

King, William C (1922), , MA, US: The History Associates, archived from the original on 1 August 2012.

Complete History of the World War: Visualizing the Great Conflict in all Theaters of Action 1914–1918

Morgenthau, Henry sr (1918), (PDF), Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co, archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2013, retrieved 13 September 2006.

Ambassador Morgenthau's Story

——— (1919) [1918], Ambassador Morgenthau's Story, Garden City, : Doubleday, Page & Co.

NY

Patriarchate of Constantinople (1919), , Istanbul, Turkey: Greek Patriarchate, archived from the original on 21 November 2017, retrieved 3 August 2020 Alt URL

Persecution of the Greeks in Turkey

Rendel, GW (20 March 1922), (memorandum), British Foreign Office, archived from the original on 16 April 2022, retrieved 26 November 2017.

Memorandum by Mr. Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice

Toynbee, Arnold J (1922), The Western question in Greece and Turkey: a study in the contact of civilisations, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Valavanis, G. K. (1925), [Contemporary General History of Pontus] (in Greek), Athens: Pamprosfygiki, archived from the original on 8 November 2015.

Σύγχρονος Γενική Ιστορία του Πόντου

Akçam, Tanner (2004). From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide. Zed Books.

Andreadis, George, Tamama: The Missing Girl of Pontos, Athens: Gordios, 1993.

Barton, James L (1943), The Near East Relief, 1915–1930, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

———; Sarafian, Ara (December 1998), "Turkish Atrocities": Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917.

Compton, Carl C. The Morning Cometh, New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1986.

The Inter-Allied Commission of Inquiry into the Greek Occupation of Smyrna and Adjoining Territories, (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018, retrieved 21 May 2012.

Documents of the Inter-Allied Commission of Inquiry into the Greek Occupation of Smyrna and Adjoining Territories

Fotiadis, Konstantinos (2002–2004), Η γενοκτονία των Ελλήνων του Πόντου [The Genocide of the Greeks of Pontus] (in Greek), Thessaloniki: Herodotos. In fourteen volumes, including eleven volumes of materials (vols. 4–14).

Karayinnides, Ioannis (1978), Ο γολγοθάς του Πόντου [The Golgotha of Pontus] (in Greek), Salonica: Panpontian Union.

King, Charles (2005). The Black Sea: A History, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Koromila, Marianna (2002). The Greeks and the Black Sea, Panorama Cultural Society.

(1974) [1918], The Murder of a Nation, New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union of America.

Morgenthau, Henry sr

——— (1929), , Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Co.

I Was Sent to Athens

——— (1930), An International Drama, London: Jarrolds.

Hofmann, Tessa, ed. (2004), Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung der Christen im Osmanischen Reich 1912–1922 (in German), Münster: LIT, pp. 177–221,  978-3-8258-7823-8.

ISBN

Housepian Dobkin, Marjorie. Smyrna 1922: the Destruction of a City, New York, NY: Newmark Press, 1998.

Lieberman, Benjamin (2006). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe, Ivan R. Dee.

de Murat, Jean. The Great Extirpation of Hellenism and Christianity in Asia Minor: the historic and systematic deception of world opinion concerning the hideous Christianity's uprooting of 1922, Miami, (Athens, GR: A. Triantafillis) 1999.

FL

Papadopoulos, Alexander. Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European War: on the basis of official documents, New York: Oxford University Press, American branch, 1919.

Pavlides, Ioannis. Pages of History of Pontus and Asia Minor, Salonica, , 1980.

GR

; Shaw, Ezel Kural, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Cambridge University.

Shaw, Stanford J

Sjöberg, Erik. THE MAKING OF THE GREEK GENOCIDE Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe,  978-1-78533-325-5, 2016.

ISBN

Shenk, Robert. "America's Black Sea Fleet - The U.S. Navy Amid War and Revolution,1919-1923", Naval Institute Press, Annapolis Maryland, 2012

Totten, Samuel; Jacobs, Steven L (2002). . New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7658-0151-7.

Pioneers of Genocide Studies (Clt)

Tsirkinidis, Harry. At last we uprooted them... The Genocide of Greeks of Pontos, Thrace, and Asia Minor, through the French archives, Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros, 1999.

Ward, Mark H. The Deportations in Asia Minor 1921–1922, London: Anglo-Hellenic League, 1922.

Bibliography at Greek Genocide Resource Center

"",The Atlanta Constitution. 17 June 1914.

Massacre of Greeks Charged to the Turks

"." The New York Times. Sunday 6 November 1921.

Reports Massacres of Greeks in Pontus; Central Council Says They Attend Execution of Prominent Natives for Alleged Rebellion