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Reason

Reason is the capacity of applying logic consciously by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth.[1] It is associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, religion, science, language, mathematics, and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans.[2][3] Reason is sometimes referred to as rationality.[4]

This article is about the human faculty of reason and rationality. For other uses, see Reason (disambiguation).

Reasoning involves using more-or-less rational processes of thinking and cognition to extrapolate from one's existing knowledge to generate new knowledge, and involves the use of one's intellect. The field of logic studies the ways in which humans can use formal reasoning to produce logically valid arguments and true conclusions.[5] Reasoning may be subdivided into forms of logical reasoning, such as deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, and abductive reasoning.


Aristotle drew a distinction between logical discursive reasoning (reason proper), and intuitive reasoning,[6]: VI.7 in which the reasoning process through intuition—however valid—may tend toward the personal and the subjectively opaque. In some social and political settings logical and intuitive modes of reasoning may clash, while in other contexts intuition and formal reason are seen as complementary rather than adversarial. For example, in mathematics, intuition is often necessary for the creative processes involved with arriving at a formal proof, arguably the most difficult of formal reasoning tasks.


Reasoning, like habit or intuition, is one of the ways by which thinking moves from one idea to a related idea. For example, reasoning is the means by which rational individuals understand the significance of sensory information from their environments, or conceptualize abstract dichotomies such as cause and effect, truth and falsehood, or good and evil. Reasoning, as a part of executive decision making, is also closely identified with the ability to self-consciously change, in terms of goals, beliefs, attitudes, traditions, and institutions, and therefore with the capacity for freedom and self-determination.[7]


In contrast to the use of "reason" as an abstract noun, a reason is a consideration that either explains or justifies events, phenomena, or behavior.[8] Reasons justify decisions, reasons support explanations of natural phenomena, and reasons can be given to explain the actions (conduct) of individuals.


The words are connected in this way: Using reason, or reasoning, means providing good reasons. For example, when evaluating a moral decision, "morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one's conduct by reason—that is, doing what there are the best reasons for doing—while giving equal [and impartial] weight to the interests of all those affected by what one does."[9]


Psychologists and cognitive scientists have attempted to study and explain how people reason, e.g. which cognitive and neural processes are engaged, and how cultural factors affect the inferences that people draw. The field of automated reasoning studies how reasoning may or may not be modeled computationally. Animal psychology considers the question of whether animals other than humans can reason.

The original term was "λόγος" logos, the root of the modern English word "logic" but also a word that could mean for example "speech" or "explanation" or an "account" (of money handled).[10]

Greek

As a philosophical term logos was translated in its non-linguistic senses in as ratio. This was originally not just a translation used for philosophy, but was also commonly a translation for logos in the sense of an account of money.[11]

Latin

raison is derived directly from Latin, and this is the direct source of the English word "reason".[8]

French

In the English language and other modern European languages, "reason", and related words, represent words which have always been used to translate Latin and classical Greek terms in their philosophical sense.


The earliest major philosophers to publish in English, such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke also routinely wrote in Latin and French, and compared their terms to Greek, treating the words "logos", "ratio", "raison" and "reason" as interchangeable. The meaning of the word "reason" in senses such as "human reason" also overlaps to a large extent with "rationality" and the adjective of "reason" in philosophical contexts is normally "rational", rather than "reasoned" or "reasonable".[12] Some philosophers, Thomas Hobbes for example, also used the word ratiocination as a synonym for "reasoning".

 – Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion

Argument

 – Academic field of logic and rhetoric

Argumentation theory

 – Sound practical judgement in everyday matters

Common sense

 – Bias confirming existing attitudes

Confirmation bias

 – Matching opinions and behaviors to group norms

Conformity

 – Analysis of facts to form a judgment

Critical thinking

 – Fundamental concepts in philosophy

Logic and rationality

– Topic tree that identifies many types of thoughts/thinking, types of reasoning, aspects of thought, related fields, and more

Outline of thought

– Topic tree presenting the traits, capacities, models, and research fields of human intelligence, and more

Outline of human intelligence

 – generalization of attributes from specific examples of a category to the whole category

Transduction (psychology)

at PhilPapers

Reason

Beer, Francis A., "Words of Reason", Political Communication 11 (Summer, 1994): 185–201.