Katana VentraIP

Inca Empire

The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called Tawantinsuyu by its subjects (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts"[a]), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.[4] The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The Inca civilization rose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century. The Spanish began the conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 and by 1572, the last Inca state was fully conquered.

"Inca", "Incan", and "Incas" redirect here. For a general view of Inca civilization, people and culture, see History of the Incas. For the Carolina parakeet, see Incas (Carolina parakeet). For other uses, see Inca (disambiguation) and Incan (disambiguation).

Inca Empire
Tawantinsuyu (Quechua)

Quechua (lingua franca), Puquina possibly spoken by elite

Aymara, Mochica, Barbacoan and scores of smaller languages.

1438

1529–1532

1533/1572

1572

2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi)

From 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. At its largest, the empire joined modern-day Peru, what are now western Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, the southwesternmost tip of Colombia and a large portion of modern-day Chile into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia. Its official language was Quechua.[5]


The Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many of the features associated with civilization in the Old World. Anthropologist Gordon McEwan wrote that the Incas were able to construct "one of the greatest imperial states in human history" without the use of the wheel, draft animals, knowledge of iron or steel, or even a system of writing.[6] Notable features of the Inca Empire included its monumental architecture, especially stonework, extensive road network reaching all corners of the empire, finely-woven textiles, use of knotted strings (quipu) for record keeping and communication, agricultural innovations and production in a difficult environment, and the organization and management fostered or imposed on its people and their labor.


The Inca Empire functioned largely without money and without markets. Instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. "Taxes" consisted of a labour obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers (who theoretically owned all the means of production) reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food and drink in celebratory feasts for their subjects.[7]


Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the sun worship of Inti – their sun god – and imposed its sovereignty above other religious groups, such as that of Pachamama.[8] The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the "son of the sun".[9]


The Inca economy is a subject of scholarly debate. Darrell E. La Lone, in his work The Inca as a Nonmarket Economy, noted that scholars have described it as "feudal, slave, [or] socialist," as well as "a system based on reciprocity and redistribution; a system with markets and commerce; or an Asiatic mode of production."[10]

Etymology

The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu,[3] "the four suyu". In Quechua, tawa is four and -ntin is a suffix naming a group, so that a tawantin is a quartet, a group of four things taken together, in this case the four suyu ("regions" or "provinces") whose corners met at the capital. The four suyu were: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east; the Amazon jungle), Qullasuyu (south) and Kuntisuyu (west). The name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu.


While the term Inka nowaydays is translated as "ruler" or "lord" in Quechua, this term does not simply refer to the "King" of the Tawantinsuyu or Sapa Inka but also to the Inca nobles, and some theorize its meaning could be broader.[11][12] In that sense, the Inca nobles were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000, but ruling a population of around 10 million people.[13]


When the Spanish arrived to the Empire of the Incas they gave the name "Peru" to what the natives knew as Tawantinsuyu.[14] The name "Inca Empire" (Imperio de los Incas) originated from the Chronicles of the 16th Century.[15]

(also Pachacamac) – Created all living things

Viracocha

– Rain god, prayed to when they need rain

Apu Illapu

– Hot-tempered god, causes earthquakes

Ayar Cachi

– Goddess of lightning and thunder (also Yakumama, goddess of water)

Illapa

– Sun god and patron deity of the holy city of Cusco (home of the sun)

Inti

Kuychi – Rainbow god, connected with fertility

– Means "Mother Moon", wife of Inti

Mama Killa

– Created wisdom to civilize the people, taught women to weave cloth and build houses

Mama Occlo

– Known for his courage and sent to Earth to become first king of the Incas. Taught people how to grow plants, make weapons, work together, share resources and worship the other gods

Manco Cápac

– Goddess of earth and wife of Viracocha. People give her offerings of coca leaves and beer and pray to her for major agricultural occasions

Pachamama

Quchamama – Goddess of the sea

Sachamama – Means "Mother Tree", represented as a snake with two heads

– Means "Mother Water", represented as a snake, transformed into a great river (also Illapa) when she came to Earth

Yacumama

Inca myths were transmitted orally until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however, some scholars claim that they were recorded on quipus, Andean knotted string records.[62]


The Inca believed in reincarnation.[63] After death, the passage to the next world was fraught with difficulties. The spirit of the dead, camaquen, would need to follow a long road and during the trip the assistance of a black dog that could see in the dark was required. Most Incas imagined the after world to be like an earthly paradise with flower-covered fields and snow-capped mountains.


It was important to the Inca that they not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased not be incinerated. Burning would cause their vital force to disappear and threaten their passage to the after world. The Inca nobility practiced cranial deformation.[64] They wrapped tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns to shape their soft skulls into a more conical form, thus distinguishing the nobility from other social classes.


The Incas made human sacrifices. As many as 4,000 servants, court officials, favorites and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in 1527.[65] The Incas performed child sacrifices around important events, such as the death of the Sapa Inca or during a famine. These sacrifices were known as qhapaq hucha.[66]


The Incas were polytheists who worshipped many gods. These included:

Ama sua: Do not steal

Ama llulla: Do not lie

Ama quella: Do not be lazy

Helmets made of wood, cane, or animal skin, often lined with copper or bronze; some were adorned with feathers

Round or square shields made from wood or hide

Cloth tunics padded with cotton and small wooden planks to protect the spine

Ceremonial metal breastplates, of copper, silver, and gold, have been found in burial sites, some of which may have also been used in battle.[125]

[124]

Adaptations to altitude

The people of the Andes, including the Incas, were able to adapt to high-altitude living through successful acclimatization, which is characterized by increasing oxygen supply to the blood tissues. For the native living in the Andean highlands, this was achieved through the development of a larger lung capacity, and an increase in red blood cell counts, hemoglobin concentration, and capillary beds.[132]


Compared to other humans, the Andeans had slower heart rates, almost one-third larger lung capacity, about 2 L (4 pints) more blood volume and double the amount of hemoglobin, which transfers oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. While the Conquistadors may have been taller, the Inca had the advantage of coping with the extraordinary altitude.[133] The Tibetans in Asia living in the Himalayas are also adapted to living in high-altitudes, although the adaptation is different from that of the Andeans.[134]

by Hiram Bingham (published 1912–1922).

Conquest nts.html Inca Land

360-degree movies of inca artifacts and Peruvian landscapes.

Inca Artifacts, Peru and Machu Picchu

Ancient Civilizations – Inca

National Geographic site.

"Ice Treasures of the Inca"

poetry of an Inca emperor.

"The Sacred Hymns of Pachacutec"

Inca Religion

lecture on Inca suspension bridges

Engineering in the Andes Mountains

of Inca Empire events

A Map and Timeline

a four volume work from 1902 (fully available online as PDF)

Ancient Peruvian art: contributions to the archaeology of the empire of the Incas

 – A digital version of the Corónica, scanned from the original manuscript.

"Guaman Poma – El Primer Nueva Corónica Y Buen Gobierno"