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Iran–Contra affair

The Iran–Contra affair (Persian: ماجرای ایران-کنترا; Spanish: Caso Irán-Contra), often referred to as the Iran–Contra scandal, was a political scandal in the United States that occurred during the second term of the Reagan administration. Between 1981 and 1986, senior administration officials secretly facilitated the illegal sale of arms to Iran, which was subject to an arms embargo at the time.[1] The administration hoped to use the proceeds of the arms sale to fund the Contras, an anti-Sandinista rebel group in Nicaragua. Under the Boland Amendment, further funding of the Contras by legislative appropriations was prohibited by Congress, but the Reagan administration figured out a loophole by secretively using non-appropriated funds instead.

Date

20 August 1985 (1985-08-20) – 4 March 1987 (1987-03-04)

Iran–Contra scandal, Iran–Contra

The official justification for the arms shipments was that they were part of an operation to free seven US hostages being held in Lebanon by Hezbollah, an Islamist paramilitary group with Iranian ties connected to the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.[2] The idea to exchange arms for hostages was proposed by Manucher Ghorbanifar, an expatriate Iranian arms dealer.[3][4][5] Some within the Reagan administration hoped the sales would influence Iran to get Hezbollah to release the hostages.


In late 1985, Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North of the National Security Council (NSC) diverted a portion of the proceeds from the Iranian weapon sales to fund the Contras, a group of anti-Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) rebels, in their insurgency against the socialist government of Nicaragua. North later claimed that Ghorbanifar had given him the idea for diverting profits from BGM-71 TOW and MIM-23 Hawk missile sales to Iran to the Nicaraguan Contras.[6] While President Ronald Reagan was a vocal supporter of the Contra cause,[7] the evidence is disputed as to whether he personally authorized the diversion of funds to the Contras.[2] Handwritten notes taken by Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger on 7 December 1985 indicate that Reagan was aware of potential hostage transfers with Iran, by Israel, as well as the sale of Hawk and TOW missiles to "moderate elements" within that country.[8] Weinberger wrote that Reagan said "he could answer charges of illegality but he couldn't answer charge [sic] that 'big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to free hostages.'"[8] After the weapon sales were revealed in November 1986, Reagan appeared on national television and stated that the weapons transfers had indeed occurred, but that the US did not trade arms for hostages.[9] The investigation was impeded when large volumes of documents relating to the affair were destroyed or withheld from investigators by Reagan administration officials.[10] On 4 March 1987, Reagan made a further nationally televised address, saying he was taking full responsibility for the affair and stating that "what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages."[11]


The affair was investigated by Congress and by the three-person, Reagan-appointed Tower Commission. Neither investigation found evidence that President Reagan himself knew of the extent of the multiple programs.[2] Additionally, US Deputy Attorney General Lawrence Walsh was appointed independent counsel in December 1986 to investigate possible criminal actions by officials involved in the scheme. In the end, several dozen administration officials were indicted, including then–Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger. Eleven convictions resulted, some of which were vacated on appeal.[12]


The rest of those indicted or convicted were all pardoned in the final days of the presidency of George H. W. Bush, who had been vice president at the time of the affair.[13] Former Independent Counsel Walsh noted that, in issuing the pardons, Bush appeared to have been preempting being implicated himself by evidence that came to light during the Weinberger trial and noted that there was a pattern of "deception and obstruction" by Bush, Weinberger, and other senior Reagan administration officials.[14] Walsh submitted his final report on 4 August 1993[15] and later wrote an account of his experiences as counsel, Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-Up.[14]

First arms sales in 1981 (see above)

20 August 1985 – 96 antitank missiles

TOW

14 September 1985 – 408 more TOWs

24 November 1985 – 18 antiaircraft missiles

Hawk

17 February 1986 – 500 TOWs

27 February 1986 – 500 TOWs

24 May 1986 – 508 TOWs, 240 Hawk spare parts

4 August 1986 – More Hawk spares

28 October 1986 – 500 TOWs

Secretary of Defense, was indicted on two counts of perjury and one count of obstruction of justice on 16 June 1992. However, he was pardoned by George H. W. Bush on 24 December 1992, before he could be tried.

Caspar Weinberger

National Security Adviser, convicted of withholding evidence, but after a plea bargain was given only two years of probation. Later pardoned by President George H. W. Bush.[104]

Robert C. McFarlane

Assistant Secretary of State, convicted of withholding evidence, but after a plea bargain was given only two years probation. Later pardoned by President George H. W. Bush.[105]

Elliott Abrams

Chief of the CIA's Central American Task Force, convicted of withholding evidence and sentenced to one year probation. Later pardoned by President George H. W. Bush.

Alan D. Fiers

Chief of Covert Ops-CIA, convicted on two charges of perjury, but pardoned by President George H. W. Bush before sentencing.[106]

Clair George

member of the National Security Council was indicted on 16 charges.[107] A jury convicted him of accepting an illegal gratuity, obstruction of a Congressional inquiry, and destruction of documents. The convictions were overturned on appeal because his Fifth Amendment rights may have been violated by use of his immunized public testimony[108] and because the judge had incorrectly explained the crime of destruction of documents to the jury.[109]

Oliver North

Oliver North's secretary, was given immunity from prosecution on charges of conspiracy and destroying documents in exchange for her testimony.[110]

Fawn Hall

Jonathan Scott Royster, Liaison to Oliver North, was given immunity from prosecution on charges of conspiracy and destroying documents in exchange for his testimony.

[111]

National Security Advisor was convicted of five counts of conspiracy, obstruction of justice, perjury, defrauding the government, and the alteration and destruction of evidence. A panel of the D.C. Circuit overturned the convictions on 15 November 1991 for the same reason the court had overturned Oliver North's, and by the same 2 to 1 vote.[112] The Supreme Court refused to hear the case.[113]

John Poindexter

. An ex-CIA senior official, he was indicted in November 1991 on seven counts of perjury and false statements relating to a November 1985 shipment to Iran. Pardoned before trial by President George H. W. Bush.[114][115]

Duane Clarridge

. Former Air Force major general, who was involved in arms transfers to Iran and diversion of funds to Contras, he pleaded guilty in November 1989 to making false statements to Congress and was sentenced to two years of probation. As part of his plea bargain, Secord agreed to provide further truthful testimony in exchange for the dismissal of remaining criminal charges against him.[116][18]

Richard V. Secord

. A businessman, he pleaded guilty in November 1989 to supplementing the salary of North by buying a $13,800 fence for North with money from "the Enterprise," which was a set of foreign companies Hakim used in Iran–Contra. In addition, Swiss company Lake Resources Inc., used for storing money from arms sales to Iran to give to the Contras, plead guilty to stealing government property.[117] Hakim was given two years of probation and a $5,000 fine, while Lake Resources Inc. was ordered to dissolve.[116][118]

Albert Hakim

. A former CIA clandestine service officer. According to Special Prosecutor Walsh, he earned nearly $883,000 helping retired Air Force Maj. Gen. Richard V. Secord and Albert Hakim carry out the secret operations of "the Enterprise". He was indicted for concealing the full amount of his Enterprise profits for the 1985 and 1986 tax years, and for failing to declare his foreign financial accounts. He was convicted and served 16 months in prison, the only Iran–Contra defendant to have served a prison sentence.[119]

Thomas G. Clines

Reports and documents[edit]

The 100th Congress formed a Joint Committee of the United States Congress (Congressional committees investigating the Iran–Contra affair) and held hearings in mid-1987. Transcripts were published as: Iran-Contra Investigation: Joint Hearings Before the Senate Select Committee on Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Nicaraguan Opposition and the House Select Committee to Investigate Covert Arms Transactions with Iran (U.S. GPO 1987–88). A closed Executive Session heard classified testimony from North and Poindexter; this transcript was published in a redacted format. The joint committee's final report was Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair With Supplemental, Minority, and Additional Views (U.S. GPO 17 November 1987). The records of the committee are at the National Archives, but many are still non-public.[132]


Testimony was also heard before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, and Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and can be found in the Congressional Record for those bodies. The Senate Intelligence Committee produced two reports: Preliminary Inquiry into the Sale of Arms to Iran and Possible Diversion of Funds to the Nicaraguan Resistance (2 February 1987) and Were Relevant Documents Withheld from the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair? (June 1989).[133]


The Tower Commission Report was published as the Report of the President's Special Review Board (U.S. GPO 26 February 1987). It was also published as The Tower Commission Report by Bantam Books (ISBN 0-553-26968-2).


The Office of Independent Counsel/Walsh investigation produced four interim reports to Congress. Its final report was published as the Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters. Walsh's records are available at the National Archives.[134]

Canham-Clyne, John (1992). "Business as Usual: Iran–Contra and the National Security State". World Policy Journal. 9 (4): 617–637.  40209272.

JSTOR

Hamilton, Lee H.; Inouye, Daniel K. (1987). (Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran–Contra Affair

Hicks, D. Bruce (1996). "Presidential Foreign Policy Prerogative after the Iran–Contra Affair: A Review Essay". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 26 (4): 962–977.  27551664.

JSTOR

Kornbluh, Peter; Byrne, Malcolm (1993). . New York: New Press. ISBN 978-1-56584-024-9.

The Iran–Contra Scandal: The Declassified History

Ranstorp, Magnus (1997). Hizb'allah in Lebanon: The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis. New York: St. Martins Press.

(1990). An American Life. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-69198-1.

Reagan, Ronald

Shenon, Philip; Engelberg, Stephen (5 July 1987). . The New York Times (National ed.). sec. 1. p. 10. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 15 November 2018.

"Eight Important Days in November: Unraveling of the Iran–Contra Affair"

; Muskie, Edmund; Scowcroft, Brent (26 February 1987). Report of the President's Special Review Board (Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. OCLC 15243889.

Tower, John

Walsh, Lawrence (4 August 1993). (Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters

Woodward, Bob (1987). . New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-60117-1.

Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA, 1981–1987

Archived 17 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine at Brown University

Understanding the Iran–Contra Affairs

from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives

The Iranian Arms Scandal

from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives

The Contras: a question of US Funding

Busby, Robert (2011-02-03) , Salon.com

The scandal that almost destroyed Ronald Reagan

Church, George J. (Archive). Time. Monday 17 November 1986.

"The U.S. and Iran"

Archived 14 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine on History Commons

Iran–Contra and Arms-for-Hostages Scandals

Archived 19 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine: Documents Spotlight Role of Reagan, Top Aides. By the National Security Archive

The Iran–Contra Affair 20 Years On

– Middle East Review of International Affairs, June, 2007 article by Nathan Thrall

How the Reagan Administration Taught Iran the Wrong Lessons

"The Secret Government: The Constitution in Crisis" Archived 11 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, 1987 Bill Moyers special on the Iran–Contra Affair

Audio

Condensed article outlining Iran–Contra

Archived 27 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine

The Importance of the Iran–Contra Scandal, 25 Years Later

Archived 4 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine by Malcolm Byrne (University Press of Kansas, 2014)

Iran–Contra: Reagan's Scandal and the Unchecked Abuse of Presidential Power

Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training

Personal accounts of the U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon and other State Department officials