John Sigismund Zápolya
John Sigismund Zápolya or Szapolyai (Hungarian: Szapolyai János Zsigmond; 7 July 1540 – 14 March 1571) was King of Hungary as John II from 1540 to 1551 and from 1556 to 1570, and the first Prince of Transylvania, from 1570 to his death. He was the only son of John I, King of Hungary, and Isabella of Poland. John I ruled parts of the Kingdom of Hungary with the support of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman; the remaining areas were ruled by Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who also ruled Austria and Bohemia. The two kings concluded a peace treaty in 1538 acknowledging Ferdinand's right to reunite Hungary after John I's death, though shortly after John Sigismund's birth, and on his deathbed, John I bequeathed his realm to his son. The late king's staunchest supporters elected the infant John Sigismund king, but he was not crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary.
The native form of this personal name is Szapolyai János Zsigmond. This article uses Western name order when mentioning individuals.John II Sigismund
13 September 1540 – 19 July 1551
Ferdinand I
25 November 1556 – 16 August 1570
Ferdinand I
Maximilian
1570–1571
1551–1556
7 July 1540
Buda, Kingdom of Hungary
14 March 1571 (aged 30)
Gyulafehérvár, Transylvania (now Alba Iulia, Romania)
Gyulafehérvár, Transylvania (now Alba Iulia, Romania)
Roman Catholic (1540–1562)
Lutheran (1562–1564)
Calvinist (1564–1568)
Unitarian (1568–1571)
Suleiman invaded Hungary under the pretext of protecting John Sigismund from Ferdinand. Buda, the capital of Hungary, fell to the Ottomans without opposition in 1541, but Suleiman allowed the dowager queen, Isabella, to retain the territory east of the river Tisza on John Sigismund's behalf. Isabella and John Sigismund moved to Lippa (now Lipova in Romania). Before long, they took up residence in Gyulafehérvár in Transylvania (Alba Iulia in Romania). John Sigismund's realm was administered by his father's treasurer, George Martinuzzi, who sought to reunite Hungary under the rule of Ferdinand. Martinuzzi forced Isabella to renounce her son's realm in exchange for two Silesian duchies and 140,000 florins in 1551. John Sigismund and his mother settled in Poland, but she continued to negotiate for John Sigismund's restoration with Ferdinand's enemies.
Ferdinand was unable to protect eastern Hungary against the Ottomans. At Suleiman's urging, the Transylvanian Diet in 1556 persuaded John Sigismund and his mother to return to Transylvania, where she ruled her son's realm until her death in 1559. A wealthy lord, Melchior Balassa, rebelled against John Sigismund in late 1561, and Ferdinand gained control of most counties outside Transylvania. The Székely people, whose liberties had been restricted in the 1550s, also rose up against John Sigismund, but he crushed the rebellion. During the ensuing war against the Habsburgs, the Ottomans supported John Sigismund, and he paid homage to Suleiman in Zemun in 1566. The 1568 Treaty of Adrianople concluded the war, confirming John Sigismund in the eastern territories of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary (Transylvania and "Partium").
John Sigismund initiated a series of theological debates among the representatives of the concurring theological schools of the Reformation in the 1560s. He converted from Catholicism to Lutheranism in 1562 and from Lutheranism to Calvinism in 1564. Around five years later, accepting the Anti-Trinitarian views of his physician, Giorgio Biandrata and court preacher Ferenc Dávid, he became the only Unitarian monarch in history. In 1568, the Diet passed the Edict of Torda (now Turda in Romania), which emphasized that "faith is a gift of God" and prohibited the persecution of people for religious reasons. The edict expanded the limits of freedom of religion beyond the standards of late 16th-century Europe. John Sigismund abandoned the title "elected king of Hungary" in the Treaty of Speyer in 1570. Thereafter, he styled himself "Prince of Transylvania and Lord of Parts of the Kingdom of Hungary". He died childless. The Catholic Stephen Báthory succeeded him.
Family[edit]
John Sigismund's father, John Zápolya, was the wealthiest Hungarian lord in the early 16th century.[1] After the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Hungarian army in the Battle of Mohács, the majority of the noblemen elected John Zápolya king in 1526.[2] However, a group of influential lords proclaimed Ferdinand I, Archduke of Austria, king in the same year.[3] Hungary fell into a civil war that lasted for decades.[4]
John paid homage to Suleiman at Mohács in 1529 to secure Ottoman support against Ferdinand.[5] However, neither John nor Ferdinand could win control of the whole country during the next years.[6] To conclude the civil war, the two kings' envoys signed the Treaty of Várad on 24 February 1538, which confirmed both kings' right to retain the lands that they held.[6][7] John, who was childless, also acknowledged Ferdinand's right to take control of his realm (the central and eastern part of the Kingdom of Hungary) after his death.[8] John also stipulated, if he fathered a son, his son would inherit his ancestral domains.[8] Ferdinand, however, proved unable to protect John's realm against an Ottoman invasion.[9] At age 52 John married Isabella Jagiellon, the 22-year-old daughter of Sigismund I the Old, King of Poland, on 2 March 1539.[9][10] The humanist scholars Paolo Giovio and Antun Vrančić emphasized that Isabella was one of the most educated women of their age.[10]
John Sigismund was born in Buda on 7 July 1540.[11] On learning of his birth, his father, who was on campaign in Transylvania, rode to his soldiers' camp to inform them of the good news.[12] The following day John fell ill,[12] and he died on 21 or 22 July.[12] Before his death he persuaded those present at his death bed to take an oath that they would prevent the transfer of his realm to Ferdinand.[8]
King-elect[edit]
Start of personal rule[edit]
John Sigismund's rule began with his mother's death.[54] Rather than adopting a new title, he continued to style himself rex electus (king-elect).[54] Mihály Csáky, Christopher and Stephen Báthory, and his mother's other advisors continued to participate in state administration.[54] John Sigismund sent envoys to Ferdinand to propose marriage with one of Ferdinand's daughters, but also to announce his claim to the parts of Hungary under Ferdinand's rule.[53] His demands were rejected, but peace was preserved.[53]
John Sigismund showed a particular interest in religious matters and initiated several debates among the representatives of diverse theological schools.[41] The first debate was held between Lutheran and Calvinist priests in Medgyes (now Mediaș in Romania) in January 1560.[55] A year and a half later, John Sigismund sent letters to the University of Wittenberg and other theological centers in Germany to seek advice on the main points of the two Protestant schools of thought.[55]
Melchior Balassa, one of the wealthiest lords in John Sigismund's realm, deserted to Ferdinand in December 1561.[51][53] John Sigismund moved to seize Balassa's domains, but his army was routed at Hadad (now Hodod in Romania) on 4 March 1562.[56] Stirred up by Balassa, the Székely commoners rose to restore their ancient liberties (including exemption from taxes), which had been restricted in the 1550s.[57] John Sigismund's army routed them in May,[56] and their leaders were impaled or mutilated.[56][58] The Diet adopted new laws to restrict the privileges of the Székelys, including a ban on the employment of commoners as jurors.[58] Two new royal castles named Székelytámad ("Székely-assault") and Székelybánja ("Székely-regret") were erected in the Székely Land.[59] After Balassa's revolt, most counties outside Transylvania changed allegiance from John Sigismund to Ferdinand.[51] To persuade Ferdinand to renounce the counties, John Sigismund even offered not to style himself king, but this was rejected in July 1562.[56]
John Sigismund, originally Roman Catholic, converted to Lutheranism before the end of 1562.[60] However, debates between Lutheran and Calvinist theologians continued.[61] John Sigismund appointed his court physician, Giorgio Biandrata (who as an Anti-Trinitarian did not share either the Lutheran or the Calvinist view) to head a synod to reconcile the Lutheran and the Calvinist clergymen, but their differences proved insuperable in April 1564.[61] The Diet acknowledged the existence of a separate Calvinist denomination in June.[61] John Sigismund also adopted Calvinism and made Ferenc Dávid his court preacher.[61][62]
Wars and debates[edit]
Ferdinand died on 25 July 1564, and his son Maximilian II succeeded him.[63][64] The Transylvanian Diet declared war to reoccupy the counties that had been lost to the Habsburgs in 1562.[63] John Sigismund's army seized Szatmár (now Satu Mare in Romania), Hadad and Nagybánya (now Baia Mare in Romania) before the end of 1562, but a counter-invasion by Lazarus von Schwendi reached the river Szamos in March 1565.[63] The envoys of John Sigismund and Maximilian II concluded a treaty in Szatmár on 13 March 1565 in which John Sigismund renounced his title of king in return for the recognition of his hereditary rule in Transylvania [63] John Sigismund was also to marry Maximilian II's sister, Joanna.[63]
However, the Ottomans forced John Sigismund to declare the treaty null and void on 21 April.[63] John Sigismund and Hasan, Pasha of Temesvár, joined forces and recaptured Erdőd (now Ardud in Romania), Nagybánya and Szatmár.[63] He intended to see the sultan in Istanbul to give an explanation for the Treaty of Szatmár, but Suleiman informed him that he would personally come to Hungary.[63]