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Metaphor

A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another.[1] It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are usually meant to create a likeness or an analogy.[2]

This article is about the figure of speech. For other uses, see Metaphor (disambiguation).

Metaphors are often compared with other types of figurative language, such as antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy, and simile.[3] One of the most commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature comes from the "All the world's a stage" monologue from As You Like It:


This quotation expresses a metaphor because the world is not literally a stage, and most humans are not literally actors and actresses playing roles. By asserting that the world is a stage, Shakespeare uses points of comparison between the world and a stage to convey an understanding about the mechanics of the world and the behavior of the people within it.


In the ancient Hebrew psalms (around 1000 B.C.), one finds already vivid and poetic examples of metaphor such as, "The Lord is my rock, my fortress and my deliverer; my God is my rock, in whom I take refuge, my shield and the horn of my salvation, my stronghold" and "The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want". Some recent linguistic theories view all language in essence as metaphorical.[5]


The word metaphor itself is a metaphor, coming from a Greek term meaning 'transference (of ownership)'. The user of a metaphor alters the reference of the word, "carrying" it from one semantic "realm" to another. The new meaning of the word might be derived from an analogy between the two semantic realms, but also from other reasons such as the distortion of the semantic realm - for example in sarcasm.

Etymology[edit]

The English word metaphor derives from the 16th-century Old French word métaphore, which comes from the Latin metaphora, 'carrying over', and in turn from the Greek μεταφορά (metaphorá), 'transference (of ownership)',[6] from μεταφέρω (metapherō), 'to carry over, to transfer'[7] and that from μετά (meta), 'behind, along with, across'[8] + φέρω (pherō), 'to bear, to carry'.[9]

Parts of a metaphor[edit]

The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936) by rhetorician I. A. Richards describes a metaphor as having two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the object whose attributes are borrowed. In the previous example, "the world" is compared to a stage, describing it with the attributes of "the stage"; "the world" is the tenor, and "a stage" is the vehicle; "men and women" is the secondary tenor, and "players" is the secondary vehicle.


Other writers employ the general terms ground and figure to denote the tenor and the vehicle. Cognitive linguistics uses the terms target and source, respectively.


Psychologist Julian Jaynes coined the terms metaphrand and metaphier, plus two new concepts, paraphrand and paraphier.[10][11] Metaphrand is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms tenor, target, and ground. Metaphier is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms vehicle, figure, and source. In a simple metaphor, an obvious attribute of the metaphier exactly characterizes the metaphrand (e.g. "the ship plowed the seas"). With an inexact metaphor, however, a metaphier might have associated attributes or nuances – its paraphiers – that enrich the metaphor because they "project back" to the metaphrand, potentially creating new ideas – the paraphrands – associated thereafter with the metaphrand or even leading to a new metaphor. For example, in the metaphor "Pat is a tornado", the metaphrand is Pat; the metaphier is tornado. As metaphier, tornado carries paraphiers such as power, storm and wind, counterclockwise motion, and danger, threat, destruction, etc. The metaphoric meaning of tornado is inexact: one might understand that 'Pat is powerfully destructive' through the paraphrand of physical and emotional destruction; another person might understand the metaphor as 'Pat can spin out of control'. In the latter case, the paraphier of 'spinning motion' has become the paraphrand 'psychological spin', suggesting an entirely new metaphor for emotional unpredictability, a possibly apt description for a human being hardly applicable to a tornado. Based on his analysis, Jaynes claims that metaphors not only enhance description, but "increase enormously our powers of perception...and our understanding of [the world], and literally create new objects".[10]: 50 

: An extended metaphor wherein a story illustrates an important attribute of the subject.

Allegory

: A rhetorical contrast of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses, or sentences.[15]

Antithesis

: A mixed metaphor, sometimes used by design and sometimes by accident (a rhetorical fault).

Catachresis

: Excessive exaggeration to illustrate a point.[16]

Hyperbole

: An extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral or spiritual lesson, such as in Aesop's fables or Jesus' teaching method as told in the Bible.

Parable

: A verbal device by which multiple definitions of a word or its homophones are used to give a sentence multiple valid readings, typically to humorous effect.

Pun

Similitude: An extended simile or metaphor that has a picture part (Bildhälfte), a reality part (Sachhälfte), and a point of comparison ().[17] Similitudes are found in the parables of Jesus.

tertium comparationis

A is the association of object to an experience outside the object's environment

cognitive metaphor

A is an underlying association that is systematic in both language and thought

conceptual metaphor

A root metaphor is the underlying worldview that shapes an individual's understanding of a situation

A nonlinguistic metaphor is an association between two nonlinguistic realms of experience

A visual metaphor uses an image to create the link between different ideas

In historical linguistics[edit]

In historical onomasiology or in historical linguistics, a metaphor is defined as a semantic change based on a similarity in form or function between the original concept and the target concept named by a word.[49]


For example, mouse: small, gray rodent with a long tailsmall, gray computer device with a long cord.


Some recent linguistic theories hold that language evolved from the capability of the brain to create metaphors that link actions and sensations to sounds.[50]

Historical theories[edit]

Aristotle discusses the creation of metaphors at the end of his Poetics: "But the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. It is the one thing that cannot be learnt from others; and it is also a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars."[51]


Baroque literary theorist Emanuele Tesauro defines the metaphor "the most witty and acute, the most strange and marvelous, the most pleasant and useful, the most eloquent and fecund part of the human intellect". There is, he suggests, something divine in metaphor: the world itself is God's poem[52] and metaphor is not just a literary or rhetorical figure but an analytic tool that can penetrate the mysteries of God and His creation.[53]


Friedrich Nietzsche makes metaphor the conceptual center of his early theory of society in On Truth and Lies in the Non-Moral Sense.[54] Some sociologists have found his essay useful for thinking about metaphors used in society and for reflecting on their own use of metaphor. Sociologists of religion note the importance of metaphor in religious worldviews, and that it is impossible to think sociologically about religion without metaphor.[55]

on In Our Time at the BBC

History of metaphor

A short history of metaphor

Audio illustrations of metaphor as figure of speech

Top Ten Metaphors of 2008

Shakespeare's Metaphors

Definition and Examples

Metaphor Examples (categorized)

on Perseus

List of ancient Greek words starting with μετα-

article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Metaphor and Phenomenology

Archived 19 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine

Metaphors algebra

Pérez-Sobrino, Paula (2014). (PDF). Journal of Pragmatics. 70: 130–151. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2014.06.008.

"Meaning construction in verbomusical environments: Conceptual disintegration and metonymy"